Institut für Pflanzenproduktion und Agrarökologie in den Tropen und Subtropen

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Abundance and diversity of total and nitrifying prokaryotes as influenced by biochemical quality of organic inputs, mineral nitrogen fertilizer and soil texture in tropical agro-ecosystems
(2016) Muema, Esther Kathini; Cadisch, Georg
Tropical agro-ecosystems are limited in nutrient resources as a consequence of i) being composed of highly weathered soils, ii) low native soil organic matter (SOM) content due to conversion of natural forests to arable lands and iii) continuous cropping without replenishing soil nutrients. Recovery of SOM by use of organic residues is faced with other competing uses like animal fodder. Moreover, existing SOM is further reduced by increased turnover rates due to favorable climatic conditions in the tropics. Incorporation of residues is therefore a justified means to restore SOM and to provide crop nutrients through microbial mediated activities like nitrification. Nitrification is a central step of the nitrogen (N) cycle, whereby ammonia is converted into nitrite and then to nitrate by bacteria and archaea through production of the amoA gene encoding the alpha-subunit of the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase. In order to better understand the impact of organic residues of contrasting biochemical quality (i.e., high quality Tithonia diversifolia (TD; C/N ratio: 13, lignin: 8.9 %, polyphenols: 1.7 %), intermediate quality Calliandra calothyrsus (CC; 13, 13, 9.4) and low quality Zea mays (ZM; 59, 5.4, 1.2)) on nutrient provision, effects of residue quality on dynamics of relevant decomposer microbial communities were studied. In addition, mineral N fertilizer was used to compensate for mineral N limitations especially in case of low and intermediate quality residues. Since N is one of the most limiting crop nutrients in the tropics, this study therefore focused on ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes, using DNA-based quantitative PCR (qPCR) and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) techniques. In addition, soil physicochemical properties were measured and linked to the dynamics of microbial communities. The study hypothesized that soil type due to differences in structure and nutrient background, as well as seasonality, which influences soil moisture, would shape the response of the studied communities to biochemical quality of residues. Overall, the results of this PhD research revealed specific responses of dynamics of AOB and AOA to quality of organic residues and their combinations with mineral N fertilizer. They also revealed effects of interrelations between quality of residues and soil texture as well as seasonality particularly precipitation on dynamics of microbial communities. Future investigation of active microbial communities with the use of RNA-based approaches need to be considered to further improve our understanding of quality of SOM on soil nutrient dynamics.
Adaption to rainfall and temperature variability through integration of mungbean in maize cropping
(2021) Khongdee, Nuttapon; Cadisch, Georg
Climate change has threatened global agricultural activities, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. Rainfed cropping regions have become under more intense risk of crop yield loss and crop failure, especially in upland areas which are also prone to soil erosion. In Thailand, maize is one of the important economic crops and mostly grown in upland areas of northern regions. Maize yield productivity largely depends on the onset of seasonal rainfall. Uncertainty of seasonal rainfall adversely affects maize yield productivity. Therefore, coping strategies are urgently needed to stabilize maize yields under climate variability. In order to identify suitable coping strategies, early maize sowing and maize and mungbean relay cropping were tested on upland fields of northern Thailand. The specific aims of this thesis were (i) monitoring growth and yield performance of maize and mungbean under relay cropping, (ii) testing early maize sowing and maize – mungbean relay cropping as coping strategies under rainfall variations (Chapter 2), (iii) testing effects of relay cropping on growth and yield of mungbean under weather variability (Chapter 4), (iv) determining suitable sowing dates under erratic rainfall patterns by using a modelling approach (Chapter 3), and (v) developing a technique for diagnosis of crop water stress in maize by thermal imaging technique (Chapter 5). Specifically, in Chapter 2 early maize planting or relay cropping strategies were assessed for growth and yield performance of maize under heat and drought conditions. Maize planted in July showed, regardless of sole or relay cropping, low grain formation as a consequence of adverse weather conditions during generative growth. However, July-planted maize relay cropping produced higher above ground biomass than July-planted maize sole cropping and early planting of maize in June. Despite unfavourable weather conditions, maize was, at least partly, able to compensate for such effects when relayed cropped, achieving a higher yield compared to maize sole cropping. June-planted maize sole cropping, however, was fully able to escape such a critical phase and achieved the highest grain yield (8.5 Mg ha-1); however, its associated risk with insufficient rain after early rain spells needs to be considered. Relay cropping showed to be an alternative coping strategy to cope with extreme weather as compared to maize sole cropping. However, relay cropping reduced maize growth due to light competition at young stages of maize before mungbean was harvested (Chapter 2). This negative impact of relay cropping is partly off-set by considering of land equivalent ratio (Chapter 4). Land equivalent ratio indicated a beneficial effect of relay cropping over maize and mungbean solecropping (LER = 2.26). During high precipitation, mungbean sole cropping produced higher yield (1.3 Mg ha-1) than mungbean relay cropping (0.7 Mg ha-1). In contrast to the period of low precipitation, mungbean relay cropping used available water more efficiently and was able to establish its plant, while mungbean sole cropping could not fully withstand severe drought and heat. Mulching effects of maize residues conserved soil water which was then available for mungbean to grow under extreme weather condition. WaNuLCAS modelling approaches can be used to support the decision of maize sowing date in northern Thailand to cope with climate change as indicated by goodness of fit of the model validation (R2 = 0.83, EF = -0.61, RMSE = 0.14, ME = 0.16, CRM = 0.02 and CD = 0.56) (Chapter 3) using forty-eight-year of historical rainfall patterns of Phitsanulok province. Only 27.1% of rainfall probability was classified as a normal rainfall condition. Consequently, maize in this region had faced with high rainfall variability. From long term simulation runs, the current maize sowing date led to strong maize yield variation depending on rainfall condition. Early maize sowing i.e. 15 and 30 days before farmers and staggered planting produced higher yield than current farmers’ practice (mid of July) in most conditions (91.7%). Simulations revealed that water was the most limiting factor affecting maize growth and yield while nutrients (N and P) had only limited impact. Results of the WaNuLCAS model could be used to identify optimal maize planting date in the area prone to soil erosion and climate variation of northern Thailand; however, the model cannot fully account for heat stress. Thermal imaging technique is a useful method for diagnose maize water status. As presented in chapter 5, the developed Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) using a new approach of wet/dry references revealed a strong relationship between CWSI and stomatal conductance (R2 = 0.82). Our study results established a linear relationship to predict final maize grain yield and CWSI values at 55 DAS as follows “Yield = -16.05×CWSI55DAS + 9.646”. Both early planting of maize and/or relay cropping with legumes are suitable coping strategies for rainfall variability prone regions. The positive response of early planting and legume relay cropping offers the opportunity of having a short-duration crop as sequential crop, providing an additional source of protein for humans and fostering crop diversification on-site. This leads to a win-win situation for farmers, food security and the environment due to an enhanced sustainability of this cropping system.
Benefits and trade-offs of legume-led crop rotations on crop performance and soil erosion at various scales in SW Kenya
(2021) Koomson, Eric; Cadisch, Georg
Soil erosion and land fragmentation threaten agricultural production in large parts of the Western Kenyan Highlands. In Rongo watershed, maize–common bean intercropping systems, which dominate the agricultural landscape, are vulnerable to soil degradation, especially on long slope lengths where ground and canopy cover provision fail to protect the soil from the disruptive impact of raindrops. The inclusion of soil conservation measures like hedgerows, cover crops or mulch can reduce soil erosion, but compete with crops for space and labour. Knowledge of critical slope length can minimise interventions and trade–offs. Hence, we evaluated maize–common bean intercrop (MzBn) regarding runoff, erosion and crop yield in a slope length trial on 20, 60 and 84 m plot lengths, replicated twice on three farms during one rainy season in Rongo, Migori County. Additionally, we investigated systems of MzBn (farmers’ practice), MzBn with 5 Mg ha-1 Calliandra calothyrsus mulch (Mul), Arachis hypogaea (Gnt), Lablab purpureus (Lab) and Mucuna pruriens (Muc), regarding their impact on infiltration, runoff, soil loss, soil C and N loss during three rainy seasons (long and short rains, LR and SR, 2016, and LR 2017). Measured field data on soil, crop, spatial maps and meteorology were used as input datasets to parameterize and calibrate the LUCIA model. The calibrated and validated model was then used to simulate agronomic management scenarios related to planting date (planting with first rain vs baseline) and vegetation cultivar (short duration crop) to mitigate water stress. Based on the measurements, groundcover was most influential over rainfall intensity (EI30) and plant canopy cover in predicting soil loss. Dense groundcover of Mul at the beginning of the rainy seasons was decisive to significantly (p<0.05) lowering overall seasonal average runoff by 88, 87 and 84% over MzBn, Lab and Gnt, respectively, whereas, soil loss under Mul was reduced by 66 and 65% over Gnt and Lab, respectively. The high proportion of large soil aggregates (> 5mm) in the topsoil under Mul at the end of SR 2016 significantly (p<0.05) increased infiltration rates (420 mm hr-1) in LR 2017 compared to Lab (200 mm hr-1) and Gnt (240 mm hr-1). Average C and N concentrations in eroded sediments were significantly reduced under Mul (0.74 kg C ha–1, 0.07 kg N ha–1) during the LR 2016 as compared to MzBn (3.20 kg C ha–1, 0.28 kg N ha–1) and Gnt (2.54 kg C ha–1, 0.23 kg N ha–1). Likewise, in SR 2016 Mul showed significantly lowered C and N losses of 3.26 kg C ha–1 and 0.27 kg N ha–1, respectively, over Lab (9.82 kg C ha–1, 0.89 kg N ha–1). Soil loss over 84 m slope length was overall significantly higher by magnitudes of 250 and 710% than on 60 and 20 m long plots, respectively, which did not differ significantly among each other (p<0.05). For runoff, 84 m plot length differed significantly from 60 and 20 m, but in the opposite trend as for soil loss. Across all three farms, slope gradient and slope length were the variables with highest explanatory power to predict soil loss. At the individual farm level, under homogeneous slope and texture, slope length and profile curvature were most influential. Considering results of slope length experiments, plot lengths less than 50 m appear to be preferential considering soil loss, sediment load, and soil loss to yield ratio under the given rainfall, soil and slope conditions. Our results call for integrating slope length options and cropping systems for effective soil conservation. We recommend planting Mucuna and Calliandra–hedgerows as buffer strips below the critical slope length, and legume cash crops and maize uphill. Such approaches are critical in the backdrop of land fragmentation and labour limitation in the region to sustainably maximise land area. In the modelling exercise, crops planted one and three weeks after the baseline planting date increased Maize and Muc grain yield over the baseline during the three cropping seasons, the three weeks treatment in particular. This could be due to more favourable weather conditions during the shifted vegetation period. Increased grain yield corresponded to high water use efficiency (WUE). The short duration crop planted three weeks after the baseline planting date (PD3WL+SDC10) showed the highest grain yield after PD3WL (three weeks late plaing with BL variety). The use of cultivars with short growth cycle offers the flexibility of planting again where crops failed due to crop water stress or where the rains delay, ensuring completion of the growth cycle before the season ends. Given that short growth duration crops produce less grain yield compared to their counterpart full season crops, due to the length of their cycles, breeding programs must prioritize traits that can enhance the size of the grain-filling sink. At the plot level, management systems that reduce evaporation and retain soil moisture, e.g. mulching, application of farmyard manure etc., must be promoted to reduce evapotranspiration.
Compound-specific 13C fingerprinting for sediment source allocationin intensely cultivated catchments
(2018) Brandt, Christian; Cadisch, Georg
The loss of fertile topsoil due to soil degradation and erosion not only threatens crop productivity, but also induces sedimentation of aquatic systems and leads to social-, economical-, and environmental problems in many regions of the world. The abandonment of shifting cultivation in favor of intensive mono-cultural cropping systems on sloping land accompanied by rainfall detachment and surface runoff induced soil erosion is one of the most pressing environmental and agricultural problems in the highlands of Southeast Asia. Informed soil management strategies require knowledge on the main sediment sources in a catchment. Compound-specific stable isotope (CSSI) fingerprinting, based on δ13C values of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), allows identifying hot-spots of soil erosion, particularly with regard to assigning sediment sources to actual land uses. In this regard, we assessed the potential of the CSSI – fingerprinting approach to assign sediment sources to specific land use types in various intensely cultivated catchments. In a first step we improved the statistical procedure to identify sediment sources in a heterogeneous agricultural catchment in the mountainous northwestern region of Vietnam. In a next step we tested the CSSI-fingerprinting under different agro-ecological conditions to evaluate its global applicability, using an aligned protocol. Finally, we integrated CSSI-fingerprinting and fallout radio nuclide (FRN, 210Pbex, 137Cs) analysis to estimate past net erosion rates linked to land use types. In conclusion, the integrated Bayesian SIAR-CSSI approach was an appropriate tool to identify and assign sediment sources to actual land uses in small and heterogeneous catchments. This methodology was also suitable to identify hot-spots of soil erosion in contrasting catchments of different sizes and agro-ecological zones. Integrating CSSI-fingerprinting and fallout radio nuclide analysis to determine past sediment budgets provided insight into the impact of specific land use changes on soil retrogression and degradation. Such knowledge is of great value for informed and effective soil conservation through evidence-based land management and decision making.
Crop yield and fate of nitrogen fertilizer in maize-based soil conservation systems in Western Thailand
(2021) Wongleecharoen, Chalermchart; Cadisch, Georg
The increase in food demand and land scarcity in high-potential lowland areas have forced cropping intensification with a transformation of land use from subsistence to permanent agriculture in remote hillside in Southeast Asia. This change and inappropriate land use are the prime cause of soil degradation by erosion, which have negatively affected the agricultural systems productivity and sustainability in Thailand. Therefore, vulnerable land in sloping terrain is classified as unsuitable for continuous production of arable crops unless conservation measures are introduced to stabilize the landscape. Even though conservation practices can stabilize sloping land, farmers have not been widely adopted the measures due to various constraints, such as crop area loss and crop-tree competition. To improve land use management, a two-year study (2010-2011) was conducted at the Queen Sirikit research station (13°28’N, 99°16’E), Ratchaburi Province, Thailand, on a hillside with a slope of around 20%. The treatments consisted of (T1) maize (Zea mays L.) mono-crop under tillage and fertilization, (T2) maize intercropped with chili (Capsicum annuum L.) under tillage and fertilization, (T3) maize intercropped with chili, application of minimum tillage plus Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC) relay cropping and fertilizer application, (T4) maize intercropped with chili, application of minimum tillage with Jack bean relay cropping and fertilizer application plus perennial hedges of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, (T5) as T3 but without fertilization, and (T6) as T4 but without fertilization. There was an additional plot of chili sole cropping to calculate the land equivalent ratio (LER). The first part of the study evaluated yield performance and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops using the 15N isotope technique under diverse fertilized cropping systems during the first year. Maize grain yields were lower in T2 (3.1 Mg ha-1), T3 (2.6 Mg ha-1) and T4 (3.3 Mg ha-1) than in the control (T1) (6.7 Mg ha-1). The total returns from maize and chili yields were 1,914, 5,129, 3,829, 3,900, 3,494, and 2,976 USD ha-1, for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6, respectively. Higher economic returns in mixed crop systems, by selling both maize and chilies, compensated for the maize area loss by intercropping. Maize 15NUE was highest in T2 (53.5%), being significantly higher than in T1 (47.0%), T3 (45.5%), and T4 (45.7%). Overall system’s NUE in T2 (56.8%) was comparable to T1 (53.8%) and T4 (54.5%) but significantly lower in T3 (48.6%). Minimum tillage and hedgerows (despite their positive filter effect) did not increase NUE but adversely affected maize growth during the establishment phase. The second part of the study examined nitrogen fertilizers fate and quantified partial nitrogen budgets at plot level over two cropping seasons for various maize-based cropping systems with or without fertilizer application. Overall plant uptake of fertilizer 15N applied to maize was 48.6-56.8% over the first season, while residual fertilizer 15N recovery of plants was only 2.3-4.9% over the subsequent season. The quantity of applied labelled N remaining in the soil at the end of season 1 and season 2 was 6.2-28.1% and 7.7-28.6%, respectively. Thus, 60.0-76.0% in season 1 and 12.7-31.3% in season 2 of the applied fertilizer 15N were accounted for within the plant-soil system. Consequently, 24.0-40.0% and 12.9-16.1% of labelled fertilizer N were not accounted for at the end of season 1 and season 2, respectively. The derived N balance over two years revealed severe soil N depletion under T1 (-202 kg N ha-1), T5 (-86 kg N ha-1) and T6 (-48 kg N ha-1), and a slightly negative N budget under T2 (-5 kg N ha-1). In contrast, T3 (87 kg N ha-1) and T4 (62 kg N ha-1) had positive N balances. The increase of N input via additional N fertilizer applied to chili and symbiotic N2 fixation of legumes, and the reduction of N losses by soil erosion and unaccounted fertilizer N (probably lost via leaching, volatilization and denitrification) were the main factors of the positive N balances under maize-chili intercropping systems with conservation measures and fertilization (T3 and T4). Maize yield decline under T1, T2, T5 and T6 in season 2 was related to negative N balances, while maize yield increase under T3 and T4 was related to positive N balances. However, maize-chili intercropping with fertilization had some advantage (LER > 1.0) relative to sole species cropping. Moreover, total returns from crop yields in season 2 of all maize-chili intercroppings (1,378-1,818 USD ha-1) were higher than chili sole cropping (1,321 USD ha-1), which pointed to its crucial role in decreasing production risk by reducing yield loss by pests and diseases observed in chili plants. The third part of the study used combined data of stable isotope discrimination and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to improve understanding of competition at the crop-soil-hedge interface. Hedges significantly reduced maize grain yield and aboveground biomass in rows close to hedgerows. ERT revealed water depletion was stronger in T1 than in T4 and T6, confirming time domain reflectometry (TDR) and leaf area data. In T4, water depletion was higher in maize rows close to the hedge than rows distant to hedges and maize grain δ13C was significantly less negative in rows close to the hedge ( 10.33‰) compared to distant ones ( 10.64‰). Lack of N increased grain δ13C in T6 ( 9.32‰, p ≤ 0.001). Both methods were negatively correlated with each other (r= 0.66, p ≤ 0.001). Combining ERT with grain δ13C and %N allowed identifying that maize growth close to hedges was limited by N and not by water supply. In conclusion, the results suggested a significant positive interaction between mineral N fertilizer, intercropping systems and soil conservation measures in maintaining or improving crop yields and N balances in Thailand’s hillside agriculture. Simultaneously, combining ERT imaging and 13C isotopic discrimination approaches improved the understanding of spatial-temporal competition patterns at the hedge-soil-crop interface and pointed out that competition in maize-based hedgerow systems was driven by nitrogen rather than water limitation. Therefore, sustainable agriculture might be achieved if farmers in Thailand combine soil conservation measures with appropriate and targeted N fertilizer use.
Developing indicators and characterizing direct and residual effects of biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) by the tropical forage grass Brachiaria humidicola
(2018) Karwat, Hannes; Cadisch, Georg
Nitrogen (N) losses from agroecosystems harm the environment via increased nitrate (NO3-) amounts in water-bodies and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions to the atmosphere. Bacteria and archaea oxidize ammonium (NH4+) to NO3- under aerobic conditions. Furthermore, under mainly anaerobic conditions, microbial denitrification reduces NO3- to gaseous N forms. The tropical forage grass Brachiaria humidicola (Rendle) Schweick (Bh) has been shown to reduce soil microbial nitrification via root derived substances. Therefore, biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) by Bh might contribute to reduction of N losses from agroecosystems. The present doctoral thesis aimed at assessing the potential of the actual BNI by Bh, as well as the residual BNI effect with new developed methodologies. The overall research was based on the following major objectives: (1) characterization of the residual BNI effect by Bh on recovery of N by subsequent cropped maize (Zea mays L.) under different N fertilization rates; (2) investigate if low enzymatic nitrate reductase activity (NRA) in leaves of Bh is linked to reduced NO3- nutrition by effective BNI; (3) identify a possible link between plant delta 15N of Bh and the BNI effect of different Bh genotypes on nitrification, plant N uptake and NO3- leaching losses. The overall objective was to use and test new methodologies with a minimum of disturbance of the plant-soil system, to characterize BNI of different Bh genotypes in greenhouse and field studies. The first research study focused on the investigation of a potential residual BNI effect of a converted long-term Bh pasture on subsequent maize cropping, where a long-term maize monocrop field served as control. The residual BNI effect was characterized in terms of enhanced maize grain yield, total N uptake and 15N (labeled) fertilizer recovery. Furthermore, the impact of residual BNI effect on soil N dynamics was investigated. The residual BNI effect was confirmed for the first maize crop season after pasture conversion on the basis of lower nitrification in incubation soil, higher total N uptake and higher maize grain yields. However, the residual BNI effect did not result in higher 15N fertilizer uptake or reduced 15N fertilizer losses, nor in reduced N20 emissions. Applied N was strongly immobilized due to long-term root turnover effects, while a significant residual BNI effect from Bh prevented re-mineralized N from rapid nitrification resulting in improved maize performance. A significant residual Bh BNI effect was evident for less than one year only. In the second research study it was the aim to verify the potential of nitrate reductase activity (NRA) as a proxy for the detection of in vivo performance of BNI by selected Bh accessions and genotypes grown under contrasting fertilization regimes. NRA was detected in Bh leaves rather than in roots, regardless of NO3- availability. Leaf NRA correlated with NO3- contents in soils and stem sap of contrasting Bh genotypes substantiating its use as a proxy of in vivo performance of BNI. The leaf NRA assay facilitated a rapid screening of contrasting Bh genotypes for their differences in in vivo performance of BNI under field and greenhouse conditions; but inconsistency of the BNI potential by selected Bh genotypes was observed. The third research study emphasized to link the natural abundance of delta 15N in Bh plants with reduced NO3- losses and enhanced N uptake due to BNI. Increased leached NO3- was positively correlated to rising delta 15N in Bh grass, whereas the correlation between plant N uptake and plant delta 15N was inverse. Long-term field cultivation of Bh decreased nitrification in incubated soil, whereas delta 15N of Bh declined and plant N% rose over time. Delta 15N of Bh correlated positively with assessed nitrification rates in incubated soil. It was concluded that decreasing delta 15N of Bh over time reflects the long-term effect of BNI linked to lower NO3- formation and reduced NO3- leaching, and that generally higher BNI activity of Bh is indicated by lower delta 15N plant values. Within the framework of this thesis, a residual BNI effect by Bh on maize cropping could be confirmed for one season due to the combined methodological approaches of soil incubation and 15N recovery. The development of the NRA assay for sampled Bh leaves was validated as a rapid and reliable method linked to the actual soil nitrification after NH4+ fertilizer supply. Consequently, the assay could be used for both greenhouse and field studies as BNI proxy. The gathered data from the third study indicated that decreasing delta 15N of Bh over time reflects the long-term effect of BNI linked to lower NO3- formation and reduced NO3- leaching, and that generally higher BNI activity of Bh is indicated by lower delta 15N plant values. Consequently, it was suggested that delta 15N of Bh could serve as an indicator of cumulative NO3- losses. Overall, this doctoral thesis suggests the depressing effect on nitrification by Bh might be a combined effect by BNI and fostered N immobilization. Furthermore, BNI by Bh might be altered by different factors such as soil type, plant age and root morphology of the genotypes. Finally, future studies should consider that Bh genotypes express their respective BNI potential differently under contrasting conditions.
Development of coupled mid-infrared spectroscopic and thermal analytical approaches for the characterization and modeling of soil organic matter dynamics of arable soils
(2013) Demyan, Michael Scott; Cadisch, Georg
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a large part of the global carbon cycle both as a stock, as a source of fluxes (gaseous, dissolved, or sediments) to other stocks, and is also an important component of soil fertility and likewise plant productivity. Due to the growing need for additional data for both global studies related to climate change and soil fertility, additional information is needed not only on the total quantity of SOM, but its distribution within time and space and also its quality. In this study the use of mid-infrared spectroscopy in different applications was explored as an indicator of soil quality or composition, to measure the distribution of quality in different soils and fractions, and how these new methods could be used for SOM model parameterizations compared to other methods for both short and medium term model simulations. Firstly, certain mid-infrared active functional groups as measured with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRIFTS) were studied in a long term fertilization experiment (Bad Lauchstädt) to ascertain the suitability of these different functional groups as indicators of the long term impacts of different fertilizer applications and also in various SOM fractions as separated by size-density approaches. Secondly, a coupled mid-infrared thermally evolved gas analysis was combined with in-situ monitoring of changes in vibrational functional groups to assign different qualities to different temperature ranges during a thermal oxidation experiment to 700 °C. Lastly, these two approaches were compared to traditional SOM fractionation as more rapid alternatives to parameterizing SOM pool sizes in the Century multi-compartment SOM model applied to arable soils at sites in the Kraichgau and Swabian Alb areas in Southwest Germany. In the long-term experiment (Bad Lauchstädt) it was found that certain vibrational functional groups (i.e. aliphatic (2930 1/cm) and aromatic (1620 1/cm)) in bulk soil varied (P < 0.05) according to long-term farmyard manure (FYM) and/or mineral fertilizer application. The application of 30 Mg/ha every second year of FYM increased the proportion of aliphatics as compared to aromatics, while the opposite was true for the control treatment (without any mineral and FYM fertilizer). The ratio of the aromatic to aliphatic relative peak areas were found to be positively related to the ratio of stabilized (SOC in heavy density fractions and clay size fraction) to labile SOC (light density fraction). This indicated that this peak area ratio (aromatic to aliphatic) is an indicator for the relative contribution of stabile to labile SOM as a stability index. In the next phase of the methodological development, evolved gas analysis (EGA) was used during a programmed heating of soil samples to 700°C to link EGA characteristics with SOM. An additional methodological step was the utilization of in-situ diffuse reflectance (in situT DRIFTS) measurements during heating as an indicator of the nature of SOM being decomposed at different temperatures. Thermal stability was found to be affected by experimental conditions and also sample type. The heating rate, amount of C in the sample, and volume of the sample in the heating chamber changed the rate and overall shape of the CO2 evolution curve and needed to be optimized when comparing different SOM fractions. In the long term experiment of Bad Lauchstädt, a decreasing thermal stability as measured by temperature of maximum CO2 evolution was found in the order from control > mineral fertilizer > manure > manure and mineral fertilizer. Furthermore, after a 490 day soil incubation at 20°C the thermal stability of SOC increased, but only slightly. In the in-situT DRIFTS method, the intensity of previously identified vibrational functional groups decreased (degraded) at different temperatures. The functional groups decreased in the order of aliphatic, alcoholic, and carboxylates, and at higher temperatures, also aromatic groups decreased. These findings were used as rules for fitting multiple peaks to the total evolved CO2 curve to derive SOM pools of different reactivity. Pools derived from the measured fractions of mid-infrared functional groups (aliphatic, carboxylate/aromatic, aromatic), evolved gas analysis (CO2) fitted peaks (centered at 320, 380, 540°C), and size-density fractionation (particulate organic matter, heavy density fraction, silt and clay fraction) in addition to a long-term equilibrium model run, were used to parameterize the SOM pools of the Century model as implemented in the Land Use Change Assessment tool (LUCIA) and compared to measured soil surface CO2 fluxes and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents after 2 years. The best fits for the short term study were found to be the SOM fractionation DRIFTS and EGA pool initialization methods, but the differences over two years were very small for the three different parameterization methods and generally CO2 fluxes were underestimated. A 20 year simulation, keeping all rate constants the same, on the other hand, showed large changes in both the SOC (14 Mg/ha, 0 to 30 cm) and the distribution in the pools. As compared to the 2010 baseline SOC, the DRIFTS, EGA-1, and SOM fractionation methods were closest in the Kraichgau site, while the equilibrium method was closest in the Swabian Alb. Overall, DRIFT mid-infrared spectroscopy showed its utility as a rapid assessment of the general distribution of stable to labile SOM in bulk soil. Additionally, when coupled with EGA and in-situ DRIFTS measurements, the integrated method can provide additional information during the thermal degradation of SOM during heating. All methods investigated found changes as a result of soil fertilization management, and between SOM fractions. Lastly, it was shown that such information can be used for direct SOM model inputs, although the methods should be tested on further land uses and soil types. These mid-infrared thermally coupled spectroscopic techniques represent an advance in the use of mid-infrared spectroscopy in the field of detailed SOM characterization for modeling SOM dynamics.
Environmental and farm management effects on food nutrient concentrations and yields of East African staple food crops
(2021) Fischer, Sahrah; Cadisch, Georg
Hidden hunger affects two billion people worldwide, particularly children and pregnant women. Human health and well-being are dependent on the quality and quantity of food consumed, particularly of plant-based foods. Plants source their nutrients from the soil. Essential nutrients for both, plants and humans, therefore, predominantly originate from the soil. Very little is known about the influence of environmental factors (e.g. soil types and abiotic factors, such as weather), or farm management choices (e.g. fertilisation or agrobiodiversity), on nutrient concentrations of edible crop parts. The main aim of this thesis was, therefore, to analyse the effects of soil fertility, farm management, and abiotic factors such as drought, on the quantity (yields) and quality (nutrient concentrations) of essential macro- (Mg, P, S, K, Ca) and micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu), of the edible parts of three East African staple food crops, i.e. maize (Zea mays L.), cassava (Manihot esculenta} Crantz), and matooke (East African Highland Banana (Musa acuminata Colla)), and discuss the resulting implications for food and nutrition security. Two research areas were selected in East Africa, one with a high fertility soil (Kapchorwa, Uganda - Nitisol) and one with a low fertility soil (Teso South, Kenya – Ferralsol). In each region, 72 households were randomly selected, and leaf and edible crop parts, and soil samples collected on three fields per household, organised by distance (closest, mid-distance, and farthest field). Maize and cassava were collected in Teso South, maize and matooke were collected in Kapchorwa. Yields, fertilizer usage and species richness (SR) and diversity (SD) were recorded per field. The total nutrient concentrations were measured in all samples collected (soils and plant parts). A drought occurring in the second rain season of 2016 provided the opportunity to analyse water stress effects on crop quantity and quality (Chapter 2). Edible part samples and yields collected in both seasons were compared. Soil chemical and physical properties, together with farm management variables, were compared to edible part nutrient concentrations and yields using a Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) (Chapter 3). To understand the strength of association between the measurements routinely done by agronomists (leaf measurement) and nutritionists (edible part measurement), samples of each crop were collected, and were compared to each other and to yields, using a bivariate linear mixed model (Chapter 4). During the severe drought, nutrient concentrations in Kapchorwa decreased significantly from normal to drought season in both crops. In contrast, during the moderate drought in Teso South, nutrient concentrations increased significantly in both crops. Lacking nutrient phloem mobility is suggested to play a vital role in mobilisation of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, and Cu), as shown by their decreased concentration under severe drought in the yields of both crops in Kapchorwa (Chapter 2). Soil type had a very strong effect on food nutrient concentrations. Maize grain nutrient concentrations and yields, for example, were significantly higher for all nutrients measured on higher fertility soils. Maize grain had the highest correlations with soil factors. In contrast, corresponding correlations to management factors were much weaker (Chapter 3). Concerning the comparison of nutrient concentrations in different plant parts, low phloem mobile nutrients Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu showed the largest differences in correlations between leaves and edible parts. In the same comparison, perennial crops (matooke and cassava) showed lower correlations between leaves and edible parts, than annual crops (maize) (Chapter 4). Environmental factors, such as drought impacted food nutrient concentrations. Severe drought caused a potential “double-burden” for consumers, decreasing both yields and nutrient concentrations, particularly of micronutrients. Considering food nutrient concentrations, apart from yield, as response variables in agronomic trials (e.g. fertilisation or soil improvement strategies) would contribute towards discounting the notion that crops growing on fertile soils always produce healthy and high-quality foods. Leaves may provide information on plant health, however, do not provide enough information to gauge both yields and food quality, particularly regarding micronutrients. The results also showed that measuring the edible part is vital to assessing food quality, particularly due to the observed effects of nutrient mobility, affecting particularly micronutrients and Ca. Ending hunger and improving food and nutrition security for all, particularly when confronted with global change issues such as degrading soils and a changing climate, requires a collaborative effort by all disciplines concerned.
Impacts of the fungal bio-control agent Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae on plant beneficial microbial communities in the maize rhizosphere
(2016) Musyoki, Mary Kamaa; Cadisch, Georg
Striga hermonthica causes severe yield reduction in cereal crop production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Intergrated Striga management has been proposed as one of the best options to control striga. Along this line, the use of biocontrol agent (BCA) Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae (Foxy-2) has been proven as an effective and environmental friendly management strategy. It is well established that a prerequisite for a successful BCA is sufficient risk assessment analysis. Towards this direction, Foxy-2 was assessed for its potential non-target impacts on the abundance, community structure of bacterial and archaeal nitrifying prokaryotes as well as enzymatic activities of proteolytic bacteria. Maize rhizosphere soils treated with or without Foxy-2, Striga and high quality organic residues (i.e., Tithonia diversifolia) as N source were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP). It was observed that Foxy-2 had a promoting effect on archaeal abundance under controlled conditions in sandy soils. Furthermore, crop growth stage, seasonality and soil type had a strong effect on abundance and community structure of nitrifying prokaryotes over Foxy-2 inoculation. In addition proteolytic enzymatic activities analysis showed that Foxy-2 did not affect their activities. Correlation analysis also showed that abundance and community structure on nitrifying communities positively correlated with extractable organic carbon, extractable organic nitrogen and soil pH, while proteolytic enzymatic activities correlated with extractable organic nitrogen and soil ammonium. It was concluded that Foxy-2 is compatible with nitrifying prokaryotes and proteolytic enzymatic activities.
Investigating the mode of action of the mycoherbicide component Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae on Striga parasitizing sorghum and its implication for Striga control in Africa
(2011) Ndambi Beninweck, Endah; Cadisch, Georg
Amongst the factors that are a threat to food security in Africa, is the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica which affects mostly cereals that constitute the staple food for subsistence farmers, thus affecting the livelihood of millions of people. Popularly known as witchweed, attack due to S. hermonthica can completely destroy the yield of cereal crops. Efforts to combat Striga have had very limited success since farmers rarely adopt control methods due to the mismatch between technologies and farmers? socio-economic conditions. Being such a severe problem, an appropriated method for Striga management adapted for African farmers is very much needed. The use of soil-borne fungi for biocontrol is now being developed as an alternative to the use of chemicals considering the specificity of such fungi and the fact that most of the damage by Striga is done before its emergence. The fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae has been identified and shown to be effective and specific to S. hermonthica and S. asiatica but its mode of action is not yet well known. It is required that the mechanisms underlying the mycoparasitic process of this natural antagonistic agent be well understood before its use. Thus, studies on the effectiveness, specificity and timely colonization of Foxy 2 on S. hermonthica are necessary as well as studies on the effect of Foxy 2 in Striga-host plants which should demonstrate its non-pathogenicity to food crops. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate the mode of action of Foxy 2 in its target S. hermonthica and non-target Sorghum bicolor and also to examine the safety of the use of this mycoherbicide by evaluating its ability to produce toxins. In the first part of the thesis, the ability of Foxy 2 to colonize sorghum roots and possibly shoots was investigated using light and transmission electron microscopy. The efficacy of Foxy 2 to cause death of S. hermonthica seedlings attached to Foxy 2 colonized sorghum roots was also evaluated. Microscopic investigations revealed that the intensity of root colonization by Foxy 2 increased with time and Foxy 2 could survive and colonize the sorghum rhizodermis, root hairs and cortical parenchyma up to four weeks after sowing. This behaviour is well adapted for Striga control as it corresponds to the peak of Striga seedling attachment. Hyphae were completely absent from the sorghum root central cylinder even after four weeks and also absent from the sorghum shoots up to 11 weeks after sowing indicating the non-pathogenity of Foxy 2 to sorghum. Furthermore, Foxy 2 was effective in controlling S. hermonthica by causing disease in 95% and 86% of S. hermonthica seedlings when coated on seeds of tolerant and susceptible sorghum cultivars respectively. Therefore, Foxy 2 could be combined with the tolerant sorghum variety in an integrated approach against S. hermonthica and S. asiatica. The effect of Foxy 2 on various growth stages of S. hermonthica was investigated subsequently so as to understand the mechanisms of action of Foxy 2 within S. hermonthica in the real living complex between the mycoherbicide Foxy 2, the parasite S. hermonthica and its host sorghum. Light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy were used to evaluate the pattern of colonization and control of S. hermonthica seedlings and shoots by Foxy 2. Results showed that 26 days after sowing Foxy 2 coated sorghum seeds, all tissues of the young S. hermonthica seedlings attached to sorghum roots were completely degraded and destroyed by Foxy 2 including the haustorial intrusive cells, hyaline tissue, vessels, central xylem elements and Striga cortical parenchyma. Some S. hermonthica plants which attached to areas of the sorghum root which were not yet colonized by Foxy 2 (towards the root tips), were able to outgrow the fungus and emerged. In the emerged S. hermonthica shoots, hyphae had subsequently penetrated and colonized vessels clogging them over long distances and were identified up to the top of the plants. In some vessels there was an intensive blockage of the vessels by hyphae such that spaces or gaps were rare. Ultrathin sections showed that the diseased S. hermonthica shoots reacted to Foxy 2 invasion by forming an electron dense wall coating along the secondary vessel walls probably to prevent fungal digestion of the walls. The study thus identified two mechanisms by which Foxy 2 contributed to wilting and death of S. hermonthica which included complete digestion of underground S. hermonthica seedlings and hyphal clogging of vessels in emerged S. hermonthica plants which interfered with water conduction. In order to understand the reactions of sorghum towards the presence of Foxy 2 as part of the risk assessment to ensure the safe use of this biocontrol agent, the action of Foxy 2 and a known pathogenic Fusarium species, F. proliferation, were compared in the fourth chapter. Sorghum roots were also wounded to expose the vascular system so as to investigate whether removal of the endodermal barrier could give access to Foxy 2 into the vessels which could lead to digestion resulting in wilting of the sorghum plants. The colonization processes of the two Fusaria species were quite different at all stages of growth. While F. proliferatum degraded the endodermis, invaded the central cylinder and digested the xylem parenchyma two weeks after sowing, Foxy 2 was restricted to the cortex even up to four weeks after sowing. Hyphae of Foxy 2 filled the intercellular spaces at the outer endodermal wall but could not penetrate the endodermis. Sorghum roots were observed to react to Foxy 2 invasion by reinforcing the central cylinder as seen by an increase in blue auto fluorescence especially of the endodermis. Five days after wounding and inoculating sorghum roots, Foxy 2 hyphae invaded the central cylinder very close to the cut but were completely absent from the central cylinder at a distance of 3000 µm from the cut, meanwhile F. proliferatum hyphae had digested the cells of the central cylinder at this distance. This indicated that not only the endodermis was a barrier but there could also be a physiological barrier within the central cylinder of the sorghum root which did not allow further spread of Foxy 2. Hence, exposure of the vascular system did not serve as a route for the invasion of Foxy 2 which therefore implied that it could not cause wilting of the plant. In the last part of the thesis, S. hermonthica shoots were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS to investigate the possible production of toxins by Foxy 2 to kill the plant. Amongst the toxins tested (beauvericin, fumonisins B1, B2, B3, C and P series, enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and moniliformin), only beauvericin (BEA) was detected to be produced by Foxy 2 in S. hermonthica shoots. The concentration of this toxin increased with increased infection e.g. 60 µg BEA/kg Striga shoot tissue (dry weight) were detected three weeks after emergence rising to 720 µg BEA/kg Striga shoot tissue after six weeks in the severely diseased S. hermonthica shoots. When beauvericin was applied on S. hermonthica shoots at concentrations of 50 µM, transmission electron microscopy showed that all cell types became necrotic. However, beauvericin as well as all the other toxins were not detected in sorghum grains harvested from sorghum plants which were hosts to the S. hermonthica plants and growing from Foxy 2 coated sorghum seeds. Given that some F. oxysporum strains were previously shown to be able to produce fumonisins which are among the toxins which have been reported to be of potential risks to human and animal health, a pure culture of Foxy 2 was evaluated for its fumonisin production ability. Results from real-time PCR using two specific primer pairs for the FUM1 gene (which is the key gene for fumonisin synthesis), were negative confirming that Foxy 2 was not able to produce fumonisins and might not be of major concern for human and animal health when used as a biocontrol agent in the field, therefore safe for use as a biocontrol agent. To conclude, Foxy 2 showed potential to control S. hermonthica by completely destroying young underground stages and clogging vessels in aboveground stages, as well as producing the toxin beauvericin, both actions contributing to wilting of the plants. Its non-pathogenicity to sorghum and its inability to produce fumonisins could be seen as factors which make it well suited as a biocontrol agent. Further research needs to be done to evaluate its efficacy under field conditions and the impact of naturally occurring soil microorganisms and abiotic conditions on performance of Foxy 2 so as to understand its interactions with the environment and to optimize its efficacy.
Measuring and modelling resource use competition at the crop-soil-hedge interface on a hillside in Western Thailand
(2015) Hussain, Khalid; Cadisch, Georg
Thailand’s western uplands are facing severe soil loss and runoff problems due to intensive cultivation of cash crops for high food, feed, fiber, and fuel demand by an increasing population. Thus the Land Development Department and the International Board for Soil Research and Management in Thailand are promoting the use of soil conservation measures such as contour hedgerows, grass barriers and agroforestry systems based on fruit trees and annual crops. Although such measures have been shown to be effective in controlling soil erosion, farmers often are reluctant to adopt such practices as inclusion of trees reduces the cropped area and yields competition for available resources with crops. Hence, a better understanding of the underlying processes at the crop-soil-hedge interface is needed to design soil conservation systems that are more attractive for farmers. It was hypothesized that soil conservation systems with hedgerows and intercropping will induce spatial patterns of resource use which can be linked to competition while planting patterns affect canopy characteristics and light distributions. This study focused on the following objectives; (i) to improve understanding of competition at the crop soil hedge interface by combining stable isotope discrimination, electrical resistivity tomography and time domain reflectometry, (ii) to identify the effects of intercropping and hedgerows on maize biomass accumulation, nitrogen concentration and light use efficiency, (iii) to evaluate the competition between maize hedges at crop-soil-hedge interface, (iv) to explore possible mitigating options to cope with competition between hedge and maize by using a modelling approach. A field trial was laid out in randomized complete block design with three replicates at Queen Sirikit research farm, Ban Bo Wi village (13°28´ N and 99°15´ E), Suan Phueng District, Ratchaburi province in western Thailand with 20-25% slope magnitude. The experiment was established in 2009 while the research presented here was carried out during the 2010 and 2011 maize growing seasons. Six cropping treatments with following management practices were investigated: (T1, control) maize [Zea mays L.) monocrop, tillage, with fertilizer application (farmer’s practice; (T2) maize intercropped with chili (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Super Hot), tillage and fertilizer application; (T3) maize intercropped with chili, minimum tillage, fertilizer application, and Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis (DC) L.) relay cropping; (T4) maize intercropped with chili, minimum tillage, fertilizer application, Jack bean relay cropped, and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit) hedgerows; (T5) and (T6) as (T3) and (T4), respectively, but both without fertilizer application. Tillage was carried out manually by hoe to around 0-20 cm depth. Plots were 13 x 4 m. Fertilizer was applied to maize at a rate of 62, 22, 36 kg ha-1 of N, P, and K, respectively. Urea (N) application to maize was done in two splits as 31 kg ha-1 of N one month after sowing maize and another split of 31 kg ha-1 of N two months after sowing maize Chili received 92 kg N ha-1 at the time of transplanting and 92 kg ha-1 N as top dressing one month after transplanting. The impact of competition at the crop-soil-hedge interface was studied in 2011, two years after establishment of soil conservation measures, to exclude the establishment period of leucaena with a potentially weak impact on maize. At this time, highest above ground biomass (AGB) production of maize of 1364 g m-2 was witnessed in T2 being statistically different from all other treatments, except T4 and T3; while lowest above ground biomass production of 1034 g m-2 was observed in T5. In hedgerow treatments, maize rows planted distant to hedges produced 46% and 73% higher AGB than maize growing in rows close to the hedgerow (p≤0.0001) in T4 and T6, respectively. Similar effects were observed for plant height, grain nitrogen concentration and grain yield. Mean grain δ13C was significantly higher in T6 (-9.32‰) than in T4 (-10.49‰) and T1 (-10.55‰). Generally, higher δ13C signals mean higher water availability; however the higher δ13C signals in unfertilized T6 treatment imply that lack of nutrients may have led to increased δ13C values. Similarly in T4, δ13C signals were significantly higher in maize grains originating form rows planted close to hedges (10.33‰, p≤0.0001) than samples obtained from maize rows distant to hedges (-10.64‰). These results point out that competition at the crop-soil-hedge interface was driven by nutrient rather than water limitation. The electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) imaging further supported this finding showing that maize monocrop showed higher soil moisture depletion patterns than hedge intercrop with fertilizer (T4) treatment, while hedge intercrop without fertilization (T6) depleted soil moisture least. Light use efficiency (LUE) for maize above ground biomass production was statistically higher LUEAGB (1.56 g DM MJ-1) in maize and chilli intercrop (T2) than in maize sole cropping LUEAGB (1.23 g DM MJ-1). In T4 and T6 maize rows planted close to hedgerows had lower LUEAGB than rows distant to hedgerows. The land equivalent ratio showed that inclusion of hedgerows with fertilizer application in the intercropping treatment enhanced land utilization by 21%. The Water, Nutrient and Light Capture in Agroforestry (WaNuLCAS) model simulated AGB with R2= 0.83, RMSE=6.3, EF=0.82 and CD=1.4 during calibration while model validation also showed promising results with R2= 0. 76, P<0.001, RMSE=4.6 and EF=0.69. Simulations also pointed to major nutrient limitation between maize rows planted close to hedgerows. Simulations showed that negative impacts of hedgerows on crops can be reduced by managing fertilizer application in hedge adjacent maize rows leading to a successful application of agroforestry systems on a long-term basis not only for soil conservation but also for sustainable crop production in tropical uplands. The study figured out the scope of stable isotopic discrimination, ERT, light use efficiency and modelling approaches for evaluating resource use competition at crop-soil-hedge interface on hillside agriculture. The combination of isotopic discrimination and ERT measurements provided useful information for identification of cause-impact relationships. Spatial LUE patterns provided insights for canopy light harvest under various soil conservation options. Furthermore, light use data was also helpful in validation of WaNuLCAS model which did not only provide multiple options to figure out resource use competition at crop-soil-hedge interface but also allowed to test mitigation options for sustainable crop production in tropical uplands. Model scenarios showed that negative impacts of hedgerows on crops growing close to hedges can be reduced by applying minute additional doses of fertilizer only to the crop rows planted close to hedgerows, leading to a sustainable crop production along with soil conservation. Productivity evaluation of investigated cropping systems showed that inclusion of hedgerows and intercropping in tropical hillside agriculture is promising in enhancing crop production and thus can be adopted by farmers with yield advantage.
Mid-infrared spectroscopy and enzyme activity temperature sensitivities as experimental proxies to reduce parameter uncertainty of soil carbon models
(2021) Laub, Moritz; Cadisch, Georg
Models that simulate the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) are crucial to understand the global carbon cycle, but current generation models are subject to major uncertainties due to two model shortcomings. Firstly, their different carbon pools are not connected to measurable SOC fractions. Secondly, there is uncertainty about the response of the different carbon pools to an increasing temperature. The aim of this thesis was thus to link the SOC model pools of the Daisy model to measurable proxies for SOC quality and pool specific temperature sensitivity. In the first study, the drying temperature for soil samples assessed by diffuse reflectance mid infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) was optimized to assure optimal representativeness of aliphatic and aromatic-carboxylate absorption bands as proxies for fast- and slow-cycling SOC pools. Their ratio was termed the DRIFTS stability index (DSI). In the second study, the DSI was used to distinguish fast- and slow-cycling SOC model pools at model initialization. In the third study, model initialization using DSI was performed to infer pool specific temperature sensitivities for the different Daisy carbon pools. Furthermore, it was tested whether the measured temperature sensitivities of different extracellular soil enzymes could be used as proxies for pool specific temperature sensitivity. Using a global collection of soil samples revealed that the absorption of all studied DRIFTS absorption bands increased significantly (p < 0.0001) with increasing drying temperature from 32°C to 105°C. This effect was disproportionally strong for the aliphatic absorption band. Due to the strong interference of the residual soil sample moisture content with the aliphatic absorption band, drying at 105°C and storage in a desiccator prior to measurement would be necessary for representative spectra for model pool initialization. In the following, a combination of medium to long-term bare fallow experiments was used, to test the utility of the DSI for SOC pool initialization. Pool partitioning by the DSI was superior to using a fixed pool partitioning under the assumption that SOC was at steady state. The DSI contained robust information on SOC quality across sites. Therefore, in the majority of cases, the application of the DSI led to significantly lower model errors than the steady state assumption. Furthermore, the application of the DSI in Bayesian calibration led to a reduced parameter uncertainty for the turnover of the slow-cycling SOC pool and the humification efficiency. The 95% credibility interval of the slow-cycling SOM pools’ half-life between 278 and 1095 years suggested faster SOC turnover than earlier studies. The DSI used for SOC model pool initialization was then combined with the lignin-to-nitrogen ratio for litter pool initialization to infer pool specific temperature sensitivities. The simulations of five field studies and laboratory incubations with fallow soil and crop-litter inputs were combined. Based on a clear pool definition, pool specific temperature sensitivities could be inferred by Bayesian calibration. However, differences in temperature sensitivities of the same pools between experiments suggested that carbon stability was not the main driver of temperature sensitivities. Instead, the main difference was found between the laboratory incubations (higher Q10 values up to 3) and the field (lower Q10 values centered around 2). In a second approach, the measured Q10 value of phenoloxidase (1.35) was used as Q10 value of the temperature function of both SOM pools and the slow crop-litter pool while ß glucosidase (1.82) was used for the fast crop litter pool. This improved field simulations by 3 to 10% compared to assuming a standard Q10 of 2 for all pools. Thus, site specific Q10 of different soil enzymes showed potential as proxy for site and pool specific temperature sensitivities. Important state variables that explain the observed Q10 value differences between experiments were identified as physical protection of SOC, substrate availability and environmental stress for microorganisms due to fluctuating state variables in the field. In conclusion, the usefulness of the DSI as an indicator of SOC stability and proxy for pool initialization was demonstrated for several soils in central Europe. In addition, it was shown that pool partitioning proxies can help to infer pool specific temperature sensitivity by Bayesian calibration. However, temperature sensitivity was not mainly a function of carbon stability.
Modeling the influence of coastal vegetation on the 2004 tsunami wave impact
(2014) Laso Bayas, Juan Carlos; Cadisch, Georg
A tsunami causes several effects once it reaches inland. Infrastructure damage and casualties are two of its most severe consequences being mostly determined by seaquake intensity and offshore properties. Nevertheless, once on land, the energy of the wave is attenuated by gravity (elevation) and friction (land cover). Despite being promoted as ‘bio-shields’ against wave impact, proposed tree-belt effects lacked quantitative evidence of their performance in such extreme events, and have been criticized for creating a false sense of security. The current study analyzed some of the land uses in sites affected by the 2004 tsunami event, especially in coastal areas close to the coast of Indonesia, more specifically on the west coast of Aceh, Sumatra as well as on the Seychelles. Using transects perpendicular to the coast, the influence of coastal vegetation on the impact of the 2004 tsunami, particularly cultivated trees, was modeled. A spatial statistical model using a land cover roughness coefficient to account for the resistance offered by different land uses to the wave advance was developed. The coefficient was built using land cover maps, land use characteristics (stem diameter, height, and planting density), as well as a literature review. The spatial generalized linear mixed models used showed that while distance to coast was the dominant determinant of impact (casualties and infrastructure damage), the existing coastal vegetation in front of settlements also significantly reduced casualties, in the case of Aceh, by an average of 5%. Despite this positive effect of coastal vegetation in front of a settlement, it was also found that dense vegetation behind villages endangered human lives and increased structural damage in the same case, most likely due to debris carried by the backwash. The models initially developed in Aceh were adapted and tested for the effects that the same tsunami event caused in the Seychelles, where the intensity of the event was a tenth of that in Aceh. These new models suggested no direct effect of coastal vegetation, but they indicated that vegetation maintained dunes decreased the probability of structural damage. Additionally, using satellite imagery with higher resolution than that of the first study and/or from different years before the tsunami, corresponding land roughness coefficients were developed and tested with the existing models. The new models showed no signs of further increase of goodness of fit (AIC). Nevertheless, weather conditions at the acquisition dates as well as coverage and lack of image availability diminished the predictive power of these models. Overall, more than advocating for or against tree belts, a sustainable and effective coastal risk management should be promoted. This planning should acknowledge the location (relative to the sea) of settlements as the most important factor for future coastal arrangements. Nevertheless, it should also consider the possible direct and indirect roles of coastal vegetation, determined by its spatial arrangement as shown in the study models. Sustainability of these measures would only occur when coastal vegetation is regarded as a livelihood provider rather than just as a bio-shield. Practical examples could include, e.g. rubber plantations or home gardens in front of settlements, while leaving escape routes or grasslands and coconut plantations behind these. Therefore, the enforcement of educational programs, the setup and maintenance of effective warning systems and the adequate spatial allocation of coastal vegetation bringing tangible short and mid term benefits for local communities, as well as its adaption to local customs should be considered.
Modelling weed management effects on soil erosion in rubber plantations in Southwest China
(2018) Liu, Hongxi; Cadisch, Georg
Land use in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China, a typical subtropical rain forest region, has been dramatically changed over the past 30 years. Driven by favorable market opportunities, a rapid expansion of rubber plantations has taken place. This disturbs forests and land occupied by traditional swidden agriculture thus strongly affecting hydrological/erosion processes, and threatening soil fertility and water quality. The presented PhD thesis aimed at assessing farmer acceptable soil conservation strategies in rubber plantations that efficiently control on-site soil loss over an entire rotation time (25 – 40 years) and off-site sediment yield in the watershed. The study started with field investigations on erosion processes and soil conservation management options in rubber plantations (Chapter 2 and 3). Based on the field data, the physically based model “Land Use Change Impact Assessment” (LUCIA) was employed to assess long-term conservation effects in rubber plantations (Chapter 4) and scale effects on sediment yield in the watershed (Chapter 5). Specifically, the first study aimed at assessing soil loss in rubber plantations of different ages (4, 12, 18, 25 and 36 year old) and relating erosion potential to surface cover and fine root density by applying the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) model. This study adopted the space-for-time substitution for field experimental design instead of establishing a long-term observation. Spatial heterogeneity of soil properties (e.g. texture, organic carbon content) and topography (slope steepness and length) interfered erosion at different plantation ages. To meet this challenge, namely account for possible impacts of soil properties and slope on erosion, the empirical USLE model was applied in data analysis to calculate the combined annual cover, management and support practice factor CP, which represents ecosystem erosivity. Calculated CP values varied with the growth phase of rubber in the range of 0.006 - 0.03. Surface cover was recognized as the major driver responsible for the erosive potential changes in rubber plantations. The mid-age rubber plantation exhibited the largest erosion (3 Mg ha-1) due to relatively low surface cover (40%-60%) during the rainy season, which was attributed to low weed cover (below 20%) and the low surface-litter cover favored by a high decomposition rate. Based on the results of the first study, the second study focused on reducing soil loss in rubber plantations by maintaining a high surface cover through improved weed management. Among the different weeding strategies tested, no-weeding most efficiently reduced on-site soil loss to 0.5 Mg ha-1. However, due to the low farmer acceptance of the no-weeding option, we recommend reducing herbicide application to a single dose at the beginning of the rainy season (once-weeding) to better conserve soil as well as inhibiting overgrowth of the understory vegetation. As the second experiment lasted only one-year, while rubber plantation is a perennial crop with a commercial lifespan of 25 – 40 years, the third study applied the LUCIA model to simulate the temporal dynamics of soil erosion in rubber plantations under different weeding strategies. The erosion module in LUCIA was extended to simulate both runoff and rainfall based soil detachment to better reflect the impact of the multi-layer structure of the plantation canopy. The improved LUCIA model successfully represented weed management effects on soil loss and runoff at the test site with a modelling efficiency (EF) of 0.5-0.96 and R2 of 0.64-0.92. Long-term simulation results confirmed that “once-weeding” controlled annual soil loss below 1 Mg ha-1 and kept weed cover below 50%. Therefore, this weeding strategy was suggested as an eco- and farmer friendly management in rubber plantations. Furthermore, LUCIA was applied at watershed level to evaluate plot conservation impact on sediment yield. Two neighboring sub-watersheds with different land cover were chosen: one a forest dominated (S1, control), the other with a mosaic land use (S2), which served to assess mono-conservation (conservation only in rubber plantations) and multi-conservation (conservation in maize, rubber and tea plantations) effects on total sediment yields. The model was well calibrated and validated based on peak flow (EF of 0.70 for calibration and 0.83 for validation) and sediment yield (EF of 0.71 for calibration and 0.95 for validation) measured from the two watersheds outlet points. Model results showed that improved weed management in rubber plantations can efficiently reduce the total sediment yields by 20%; while multi-conservation was largely able to offset increased sediment yields by land use change. In summary, while exploring the dynamics of erosion processes in rubber plantations, a physically based model (LUCIA) was extended and applied to simulate weed management effects over an entire crop cycle (40 years) and implications at higher scale level (watershed sediment yield). Once-weeding per year was identified as an improved management to reduce on-site erosion and off-site sediment yield. But to fully offset increased sediment yield by land use change, a multi-conservation strategy should be employed, which not only focuses on new land uses, like rubber plantations, but also takes care of traditional agricultural types. A conceptual framework is proposed to further assess the specific sub-watershed erosion (e.g. sediment or water yield) effects in large watersheds by spatially combining process-oriented and data-driven (e.g. statistic based, machine learning based) models. This study also serves as a case study to investigate ecological issues (e.g. erosion processes, land use change impact) based on short-term data and modelling in the absence of long-term observations.
Nutrient management and spatial variability of soils across scales and settlement schemes in Zimbabwe
(2010) Cobo Borrero, Juan Guillermo; Cadisch, Georg
Decline in soil fertility in Africa is one of the most limiting biophysical factors to agricultural productivity, as nutrient mining and low yields are strongly related. However, the high heterogeneity in management together with different biophysical, socio-economical and political conditions across each African agro-ecosystem make blanket recommendations difficult. Thus, acknowledging heterogeneity, and moreover quantifying it at different spatial scales, are the first steps to make adequate recommendations for the different actors. The goal of this thesis was to develop new methodological approaches to better understand nutrient management and spatial variability of soils across different scales in African agro-ecosystems, having various small-holder settlement schemes in Zimbabwe as a case study. Firstly, the thesis includes a literature review on nutrient balances in Africa, which was carried out to illustrate main approaches, challenges, and progress made, with emphasis on issues of scale. The review revealed that nutrient balances are widely used across the continent. The collected dataset from 57 peer-reviewed studies indicated, however, that most of the balances were calculated at plot and farm scale, and generated in East Africa. Data confirmed the expected trend of negative balances for N and K (>75% of studies had mean values below zero), while for P only 56% of studies showed negative mean balances. Several cases with positive nutrient balances indicated that soil nutrient mining cannot be generalized across the African continent. Land use systems of wealthier farmers and plots located close to homesteads mostly presented higher N and P balances than systems of poorer farmers (p<0.001) and plots located relatively farther away (p<0.05). Partial nutrient balances were significantly higher (p<0.001) than full balances calculated for the same systems, but the latter carried more uncertainties. The change in magnitude of nutrient balances from plot to continental level did not show any noticeable trend, which challenges prevailing assumptions that a trend exists. However, methodological differences made a proper inter-scale comparison of results difficult. Actually, the review illustrated the high diversity of methods used to calculate nutrient balances and highlighted the main pitfalls, especially when nutrient flows and balances were scaled-up. In fact, gathered information showed that despite some few initiatives, appropriate scaling-up methods are still incipient. In the next chapter, the nutrient balance approach was applied in NE Zimbabwe. Three smallholder villages located in a typical communal area (colonial settlement from 1948), and in old (1987) and new (2002) resettlement areas (post- land reform settlements), on loamy sand, sandy loam and clay soils, respectively, were selected to explore differences in natural resource management and land productivity. Focus group discussions and surveys were carried out with farmers. Additionally, farmers in three wealth classes per village were chosen for a detailed assessment of their main production systems. Maize grain yields (Mg ha-1) in the communal (1.5-4.0) and new resettlement areas (1.9-4.3) were similar but significantly higher than in the old resettlement area (0.9-2.7), despite lower soil quality in the communal area. Nutrient input use was the main factor controlling maize productivity in the three areas (R2=59-83%), while inherent soil fertility accounted for up to 12%. Partial N balances (kg ha-1 yr-1) were significantly lower in the new resettlement (-9.1 to +14.3) and old resettlement (+7.4 to +9.6) than in the communal area (+2.1 to +59.6) due to lower nutrient applications. P balances were usually negative. Consistently, maize yields, nutrient applications and partial N balances were higher for the high wealth class than in poorer classes. It is argued that effective policies supporting an efficient fertilizer distribution and improved soil management practices, with clearer rights to land, are necessary to avoid future land degradation and to improve food security in Zimbabwe, particularly in the resettlement areas. In the last chapter, the same three villages in NE Zimbabwe were sampled to determine the feasibility of integrating mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIRS) and geostatistics, as a way of facilitating landscape analysis and monitoring. A nested non-aligned design with hierarchical grids of 750, 150 and 30 m resulted in 432 sampling points across all villages. At each point, a composite topsoil sample was taken and analyzed by MIRS. Conventional laboratory analyses on 25-38% of the samples were used for the prediction of concentration values on the remaining samples through the application of MIRS - partial least squares regression models. Models were successful (R2≥0.89) for sand, clay, pH, total C and N, exchangeable Ca, Mg and effective CEC; but not for silt, available P, and exchangeable K and Al (R20.82). Minimum sample sizes required to accurately estimate the mean of each soil property in each village were calculated. With regard to locations, fewer samples were needed in the new resettlement area than in the other two areas; regarding parameters, least samples were needed for estimating pH and sand. Spatial analyses of soil properties in each village were undertaken by constructing standardized isotropic semivariograms, which were usually well described by spherical models. Spatial autocorrelation of most variables was displayed over ranges of 250-695 m. The nugget-to-sill ratios showed that overall spatial dependence of soil properties was: new resettlement > old resettlement > communal area; which was attributed to both intrinsic (e.g. texture) and extrinsic (e.g. management) factors. As a new approach, geostatistical analysis was performed directly using MIRS data, after principal component analyses, where the first three components explained 70% of the overall variability. Semivariograms based on these components showed that spatial dependence per village was similar to overall dependence identified from individual soil properties in each area. The first component (explaining 49% of variation) related well with all soil properties of reference samples (absolute correlation values of 0.55-0.96). This demonstrated that MIRS data could be directly linked to geostatistics for a broad and quick evaluation of soil spatial variability. Integrating MIRS with geostatistical analyses is a cost-effective promising approach, i.e. for soil fertility and carbon sequestration assessments, mapping and monitoring at landscape level.
Prediction of soil properties for agricultural and environmental applications from infrared and X-ray soil spectral properties
(2013) Towett, Erick Kibet; Cadisch, Georg
Many of today?s most pressing problems facing developing countries, such as food security, climate change, and environmental protection, require large area data on soil functional capacity. Conventional assessments (methods and measurements) of soil capacity to perform specific agricultural and environmental functions are time consuming and expensive. In addition, repeatability, reproducibility and accuracy of conventional soil analytical data are major challenges. New, rapid methods to quantify soil properties are needed, especially in developing countries where reliable data on soil properties is sparse, and to take advantage of new opportunities for digital soil mapping. Mid infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (MIR) has already shown promise as a rapid analytical tool and there are new opportunities to include other high-throughput techniques, such as total X-ray fluorescence (TXRF), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy. In this study TXRF and XRD were tested in conjunction with IR to provide powerful diagnostic capabilities for the direct prediction of key soil properties for agricultural and environmental applications especially for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) soils. Optimal combinations of spectral methods for use in pedotransfer functions for low cost, rapid prediction of chemical and physical properties of African soils as well as prediction models for soil organic carbon and soil fertility properties (soil extractable nutrients, pH and exchangeable acidity) were tested in this study. These state-of-the-art methods for large-area soil health measurement and monitoring will aid in accelerating economic development in developing sub-Saharan Africa countries with regards to climate change, increasing water scarcity and impacts on local and global food security as well as sustainable agricultural production and ecosystem resilience in the tropics. This study has developed and tested a method for the use of TXRF for direct quantification of total element concentrations in soils using a TXRF (S2 PICOFOXTM) spectrometer and demonstrated that TXRF could be used as a rapid screening tool for total element concentrations in soils assuming sufficient calibration measures are followed. The results of the current study have shown that TXRF can provide efficient chemical fingerprinting which could be further tested for inferring soil chemical and physical functional properties which is of interest in the African soil context for agricultural and environmental management at large scale. Further, this thesis has helped to improve understanding of the variation and patterns of element concentration data for 1034 soil samples from 34 stratified randomly-located 100-km2 ?sentinel? sites across SSA and explored the link between variability of soil properties and climate, parent material, vegetation types and land use patterns with the help of Random Forests statistics. Our results of total element concentration were within the range reported globally for soil Cr, Mn, Zn, Ni, V, Sr, and Y and in the high range for Al, Cu, Ta, Pb, and Ga. There were significant variations (P < 0.05) in total element composition within and between the sites for all the elements analysed. In addition, the greatest proportion of total variance and number of significant variance components occurred at the site (55-88%) followed by the cluster nested within site levels (10-40%). Our results also indicated that the strong observed within site as well as between site variations in many elements can serve to diagnose their soil fertility potential. Explorations of the relationships between element composition data and other site factors using ?randomForest? statistics have demonstrated that all site and soil-forming factors have important influence on total elemental concentrations in the soil with the most important variables explaining the main patterns of variation in total element concentrations being cluster, topography, landuse, precipitation and temperature. However, the importance of cluster can be explained by spatial correlation at distances of <1 km. This study has also analysed the potential of combining analyses undertaken using MIR spectroscopy and TXRF on 700 soil samples from 44 ?sentinel? sites distributed across SSA. MIR prediction models for soil organic carbon, and other soil fertility properties (such as soil extractable nutrients, pH, exchangeable acidity and soil texture) were developed using Random Forests (RF) regression and the current study has added total element concentration data to the residuals of the MIRS predictions to test how they can improve the MIR prediction accuracies. The RF approach out-perfomed the conventional partial least squares regression (PLSR) on simultaneous determination of soil properties; and in addition, RF results were also easily interpretable, computationally much faster and did not rely on data transformations or any other assumptions about data distributions compared to PLSR. With respect to the potential of combining TXRF and MIR spectra, including total element concentration data from TXRF analysis in the RF models significantly reduced root mean square error of prediction by 63% for Ecd, 54% for Mehlich-3 S, and 53% for Mehlich-3 Na. Thus, TXRF spectra were a useful supplement to improve prediction of soil properties not well predicted by MIRS. The prediction improvement from including TXRF was due to detection of a few outliers that did not appear as MIR spectral outliers. MIR showed remarkable ability to capture total elemental composition effects on physico-chemical soil properties but TXRF may have potential for outlier detection in large studies. This study has also helped to develop high-throughput spectral analytical methods and provided recommendations on optimal spectral analytical methods for the Globally Integrated Africa Soil Information Service (AfSIS) Project. Successfully developed methods in this study will become part of the standard AfSIS procedures.
Reconciling indigenous and scientific ecosystem and soil fertility indicators in swidden systems of Northern Thailand
(2021) Tongkoom, Krittiya; Cadisch, Georg
Crop rotations in today’s swidden systems of Northern Thailand typically include five to ten years of fallow. Regarding ecosystem functions, these systems are relatively close to secondary forests when compared to modern agricultural systems; but they are under pressure for intensification, i.e. shortened fallow periods. In general, criteria are needed to decide whether fallow duration can be reduced, safeguarding ecosystem restoration and provision of food and income for farmers. Acknowledging that a comprehensive assessment would cover multiple aspects, our study focuses on the role of fallow duration on tree community succession and use abundances of tree species considered as soil fertility indicators. We studied recovery indicators of tree communities at two potential broad-leaved forest climax sites that differ in soils, forest type and agricultural intensification: An intensive system of one-year upland rice, then one- to two-year maize cultivation with synthetic inputs followed by six years fallow; and an extensive system with one-year upland rice cultivation without agrochemicals and ten years fallow. In a case study village of extensive site, we investigated in how far abundance of indicator tree species corresponded to measured soil fertility parameters and whether an extended list of indicator species could improve prediction of these soil properties. Contrasting systems were chosen to test the applicability of our indicators, not to compare their management practices. From 2010 to 2011, eight variables related to stand structure and tree diversity and four soil properties were either monitored or surveyed in chronosequence plots representing different fallow ages. For each variable, means per fallow year were compared by least squares means (LS-means), and quadratic regressions from mixed models were fitted. Significant differences between LS-means and optima of regressions served to distinguish fallow stages and served as indicators of recovery and system stability. Stepwise multiple regressions confirmed fallow age as main determinant for most variables. Tree species indicator also identify by the component of multiple linear regressions function of each interested soil properties. Numbers of tree species and diversity index recovered to levels of the previous rotation within the respective fallow time, but in both systems were far from climax communities, probably due to seed-bank depletion and shift toward resprouting species. While species dominance changed over time in the extensive system, the intensive system was dominated by a single species. In the extensive system only tree density passed a peak during the fallow period, while biomass-related variables approached plateaus. In combination with the replacement of early fallow species, this points to the onset of competition and transition between successional stages. For the intensive system, no structural variable passed a maximum. With only one of eight indicators on the extensive site fulfilling the statistical criterion of passing a peak during the prevailing fallow time, reducing fallow periods is not recommended for our cases. Generally, combining LS-means and quadratic regression allowed assessing fallow duration based on distinct successional stages at different sites. The approach should include various relevant site-specific indicators, in our case representing biomass and carbon storage, species and structural diversity, considered crucial for both sites. From interview on the extensive site, farmers listed 11 tree species that relate to certain soil quality related properties. They named indicators of good soils for cropping, inappropriate soils for upland rice cropping and hard soils. Botanical tree inventories on 135 plots of one to ten years fallow age were conducted. Abundances of farmers’ indicator on one hand as well as inventory species on the other were introduced into different regression models to predict soil fertility parameters measured on the same plots. Both models were then compared regarding predictive power. Measured fertility parameters such as soil organic matter (SOM), pH, plant available phosphorus (Pav) - related to farmers’ criteria ‘good soil’ or inappropriate for rice cropping’ - as well as bulk density (BD, for ‘hard soil’), changed significantly during the fallow period, initially towards temporary pessima in years 6 to 7 followed by recovery towards year ten. Most indicator species, like Macaranga denticulata for Pav or Dalbergia cultrata for SOM, were clearly related to the soil quality characteristics attributed to them by farmers. Only in one case a species used as farmer indicator for hard soils was selected by multiple regression as predictor for high Pav. Including all tree species found during inventories into multiple regressions significantly improved predictions of measured soil parameters by AIC > |2|. Ten additional species from the survey model had potential to improve the farmer indicator model. Relative density, i.e. abundance of indicator tree species over abundance of all species, did not always match soil properties dynamics, so that the use of the regressions appears more informative for cropping decisions. Our approach to relate indicator species and measured soil parameters is not site-specific, but parameters are. Applicability of the approach could be extended if further farmer criteria such as weed suppression, represented by tree structure parameters as predictors of adequate fallow age, would complement soil fertility indicators. Based on the development of the multiple indicators of recovery of ecosystem services and soil fertility, it is not recommended to reduce fallow age at the two investigated study sites.
Relationship between soil physical properties and crop yields in different cropping systems in southern Cameroon
(2014) Tueche, Jacques Roberto; Cadisch, Georg
Crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been more or less stagnant since 1961. This can be connected to the traditional slash-and-burn agricultural based system. A growing population has forced most farmers to cultivate the same fields repeatedly. The resulting rapidly declining crop yields led eventually to an accelerated conversion of forest land into agricultural land to cope with food demand. However, the integration of leguminous species, the use of fertilizer and tillage have been proven to increase yield especially in intensive cropping systems. Although, depending on its frequency and kind, tillage can destroy soil aggregates resulting in degradation of soil organic matter. Else, it is known that improved crop varieties can be higher-yielding and more yield responsive to increased fertilizer application than traditional crop varieties. Information is scarce on the effects of soil physical properties on plantain, maize and tomato yield formation and on their changes during their cropping phase. This study aimed at understanding the relationships between soil physical parameters and crop yields in different cropping systems in southern Cameroon with the goal to identify improved management strategies. This led to the setup of 4 experiments: In a first experiment, the effects of soil physical properties on plantain yield were determined in a factorial trial in three southern Cameroonian villages comparing four cropping systems comprising two planted legumes (1) Flemingia macrophylla, (2) Pueraria phaseoloides, as well as (3) a crop, i.e. hot pepper, and (4) natural regrowth, all planted with plantain, established after conversion of old forest versus young bush fallow. Between 2002 and 2006, clay and silt content, MWD, GMD and the proportion of macroaggregates increased, whereas relative sand content, bulk density, the proportions of mesoaggregates and microaggregates decreased (not absolute decreased for sand content) in all villages, fallows and cropping systems. Changes of aggregate MWD and GMD were larger in the F. macrophylla and natural regrowth systems than in Pueraria systems. Plantain fresh bunch yield was 107 unaffected by village, fallow, and cropping systems. Plantain cultivation did not lead to a degradation of the determined soil physical properties. In a follow up second trial at Mfou, it was evaluated, if maize cropped immediately after plantain was affected by the previous plantain systems and if tillage or N fertilizer would affect maize growth and grain yield and soil physical properties. In 2006, all plantain plots were cleared and split into 4 subplots, to assess the response of maize to tillage versus no–till, and of 60 kg ha-1 of N as urea compared to no N in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Freshly cleared eight years old bush fallow served as control. Maize grain yield was highest in the previously not cropped bush control and lowest in the previous Flemingia system. Grain yield in the previous Pueraria and natural regrowth systems were not different from the control. Maize grain yield was highest, when tillage was combined with fertilizer application, being significantly higher than in individual tillage or fertilizer application treatments. Soil physical properties were affected by tillage but did not remain different until the end of the maize growing phase. In a third experiment the response of different tomato cultivars to different cultivation practices in an on-farm factorial trial was tested at Essong Mintsang in the central region of Cameroon on a Rhodic Kandiudult. Treatments were: current farmer practice of manual tillage yet not destumped, with either reduced input (no tillage, not destumped) or increased input (no tillage yet destumped, manual tillage and destumped, mechanical tillage and destumped). Yields of three tomato varieties were determined to assess, if changes in intensity of land preparation can improve soil physical properties and thus yields. At harvest, across land preparations the cv. Rossol produced higher yields (8.12 Mg ha-1) than cv. Roma (6.05 Mg ha-1) and cv. Rio Grande (4.46 Mg ha-1). Tomato total and marketable yields were significantly higher on the destumped tractor till, destumped manual till and stumps-retained manual till treatments than in the stumps retained no-till treatment. Total fresh yields of cvs. Roma and Rossol increased, when the soil was tilled, while cv. Rio Grande had no response to land preparation. Soil aggregates were least stable in the destumped, tractor till treatment, with significantly lower MWD (p=0.02) and higher mesoaggregate proportions (p=0.05) than in the other treatments. Across tomato cultivars and treatments, the marketable fruit yield could be predicted by clay, macroaggregates and bulk density. Early flowering and fruit production combined with nematode resistance were probably the main contributing factors to the high yields of cv. Rossol. 108 In a fourth experiment, the residual effects of the previous land preparation methods on maize growth and yield as well as impacts on soil physical properties were assessed. Land preparation methods had been applied to the preceding tomato crop. At harvest, maize fresh cob yield was significantly (P<0.05) lowest in the stump retained no till treatment. The equivalent maize dry grain yields varied from 2.35 Mg ha-1 in the stump retained no-till treatment to 4.16 and 4.33 Mg ha-1 in the manual till stump retained and destumped treatments, respectively. Soil aggregates were the least stable in the destumped tractor till treatment, with significantly lower (P=0.10) GMD than in the destumped manual till treatment. Maize fresh cob yield showed a strong correlation (R2~0.50, P=0.037) with soil aggregation and cone resistance to soil penetration. In summary, the transition from shifting to permanent cultivation with acceptable yields is possible if an appropriate combination of crops (cultivar), use of leguminous species, tillage and fertilizers is implemented. Soil physical properties can control crop yield and hence can be manipulated to maximise yield. Tillage can contribute to yield increase if there is an adequate SOM content and a suitable crop cultivar is chosen. Yet, tillage is labour intensive and degrades soil physical properties. Therefore, it is crucial to identify a minimum tillage frequency for low labour demand and minimal soil degradation, but with improved yields in conjunction with optimised fertilization and the development of improved crop cultivars adapted to a wide range of soil conditions.
Salience, credibility and legitimacy in land use change modeling : model validation as product or process?
(2015) Lusiana, Betha; Cadisch, Georg
Sustainable resource management requires balancing trade-offs between land productivity and environmental integrity while maintaining equality in resource access. Scenario analysis based on a credible simulation model can help to efficiently assess the dynamic and complex interactions in between components and their trade-offs. However, despite the potential of simulation models as decision support tools, acceptance and use by decision makers and natural resource managers are still major challenges, particularly in developing countries. This study was carried out to address issues related to validation of simulation models that includes users’ perspectives on validity of simulation models, scenario-based trade-offs analysis and uncertainty assessment for designing management intervention. Firstly, the current study analyzed users’ perspectives on validity of a simulation model for natural resource management based on two activities. The first activity is based on surveys in four countries (Indonesia, Kenya, Philippines and Vietnam). It explored the perceptions and expectations of potential model users (researchers, lecturers, natural resource managers, policy makers, communicators) on a hypothetical model. The second activity was a participatory model evaluation in Aceh, Indonesia involving use of the spatially explicit FALLOW model and evaluation of its outputs. When assessing a hypothetical model, potential model users’ considered salience (relevance) as the most important attribute in a simulation model followed by credibility. Once a model was used, the ability of the model results to depict reality on the ground (credibility) became a critical and most important aspect for users. Nevertheless, even in cases where model performance was poor, users considered the scenario approach in evaluating their landscape a novelty. Potential model users’ profession, prior exposure to a simulation model and interest in using models did not significantly influence respondents’ ranking of model attributes (salience, credibility, legitimacy). In the second study, to improve salience of a FALLOW model application, a livestock module was developed and tested for a peri-urban situation in the Upper Konto catchment, East Java, Indonesia. This study aimed to explore the impact of land use zoning strategies on farmers’ welfare, fodder availability and landscape carbon stocks. Scenario analysis revealed that the current land zoning policy of establishing protected areas and allowing farmers’ access to fodder extraction in part of the protected areas is the most promising strategy in balancing the trade-offs of production (farmers’ welfare) and environment (represented by above-ground carbon sequestration). Compared to the scenario reflecting current policy, the ‘open-access’ scenario that allows opening land in protected areas, was simulated to increase farmers’ welfare by 13% at the expense of losing 23% of landscape carbon. The extended FALLOW model with its livestock module proved an effective tool to examine the interactions between livestock, cropping systems, household decision and natural resources in data poor environments. The FALLOW model was able to simulate the land cover spatial pattern in the catchment (2002-2005) with a goodness of fit of 81% while the ability of predicting land change was 34.5% at a pixel resolution of 1 ha. In the third study, to understand the effect of uncertainty in input parameters influencing model outcome, an uncertainty analysis of landscape C stock and emissions was carried out using several approaches that can cater for different situations of data availability (plot level carbon stocks and land cover maps). The analysis used data collected during a study assessing opportunities for REDD+ (Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degradation) in a forest frontier region in Jambi, Indonesia, during 2000-2009. In a minimum data set situation (only single plot carbon estimates and a single land cover map available) the average landscape C stock estimates were 114.5 Mg.ha-1 and 81.0 Mg.ha-1 for 2000 and 2009, respectively. Based on an ‘expected-carbon-deviance’ curve, the confidence levels that the landscape C estimates were correct were 70% and 63% for 2000 and 2009, respectively. For other cases of enhanced data availability, Monte Carlo simulations were carried out to evaluate the propagation of land use classification errors and plot-level carbon stocks variation, jointly influencing landscape C stock and emission estimates. Results showed that excluding errors in land use classification resulted in biased estimates of landscape C stock and emissions. However, the bias over the whole area was estimated to be less than 7.5% (or 2.8 Mg.ha-1) with a coefficient variation of less than 0.2%. In the last study, we combined spatial aggregation analysis on the error-perturbed C emission maps (resulting from Monte Carlo analysis in the third study) with local stakeholders’ perspectives to develop an effective REDD+ scheme at the district level. The uncertainty analysis formed the basis for determining an appropriate scale for monitoring carbon emission estimates as performance measures of a REDD+ scheme. Changes in spatial resolution of C emission maps influenced the magnitude of potential area eligible for carbon payment and the uncertainty in carbon emission estimates. At 100 m resolution, 34.8% of the area would be eligible for REDD+ with an uncertainty of 82% , while at 5000 m resolution only 6.5% of the area would be eligible with a 1% error. At 1 km2 pixel size (1000 m resolution), the errors dropped below 5%, retaining most of the coarser spatial variation in the district. Hence, feasible measures for emission reduction in the district, derived from a participatory planning process, are compatible with the 1000 m spatial resolution of the C emission map. Overall, the research elucidates the importance of involving model users in evaluating a simulation model, including scenario development and subsequent results analysis and interpretation. The study also indicates the importance of making efforts to improve model output accuracy to gain users’ acceptance as users consider spatial accuracy is an important aspect of landscape-based models. In data-scarce situations, model users considered model ‘robustness’ in responding to new situations to be more important than ‘precision’. Scenario analysis proved to be an effective tool to examine interactions in a complex landscape, including their consequences for trade-offs (e.g. farmer’s welfare versus landscape carbon stocks) and synergies (e.g. fodder availability and farmers’ welfare). Analysis of uncertainty of landscape C emission during land use changes can provide guidance in developing appropriate natural resource management interventions. Although model users may perceive model validation as a product, it is in fact a process.
Sediment, carbon and nitrogen capture in mountainous irrigated rice systems
(2016) Slaets, Johanna I. F.; Cadisch, Georg
Anthropogenic influences have caused landscapes to change worldwide in the last decades, and changes have been particularly intense in montane Southeast Asia. Traditional swiddening cropping systems with low environmental impacts have been largely replaced by forms of permanent upland cultivation, often with maize. The associated soil fertility loss at the plot scale is well documented. In valley bottoms of these areas, paddies have been cultivated for centuries, and are considered some of the most sustainable production systems in the world – in part maintained by the influx of fertile sediments through irrigation. Altered cropping patterns on the slopes therefore also have potential repercussions on rice production, and hence on food security, but the consequences of shifted sediment and nutrient redistribution at the landscape scale are not well understood. In order to assess these effects, methodologies were developed in this thesis that enable low-cost, continuous monitoring of sediment and nutrient transport in irrigated watersheds (Chapter 2), as well as quantification of the uncertainty on constituent loads (Chapter 3). These methods are applied in a case study to determine sediment, organic carbon and nitrogen trap efficiency of paddy rice fields in a mountainous catchment in Vietnam (Chapters 4 and 5). The upland area had an average erosion rate of 7.5 Mg ha-1 a-1. Sediment inputs to the paddy area consisted of 64 Mg ha-1 a-1, of which irrigation water provided 75% and the remainder came from erosion during rainfall events. Erosion contributed one third of the sand inputs, while sediments from irrigation water were predominantly silty, demonstrating the protective effect of the reservoir which buffered the coarse, unfertile material. Almost half of the total sediment inputs were trapped in the rice area. As all of the sand inputs remained in the rice fields, the upland-lowland linkages could entail a long-term change in topsoil fertility and eventually a rice yield loss. Quantification of nutrient re-allocation in Chapter 5 showed that irrigation was even more important as a driver of sediment-associated organic carbon and nitrogen inputs into the rice fields, contributing 90% of carbon and virtually all nitrogen. Direct contributions from erosion to the nutrient status of the paddies were negligible, again underscoring the protective function of the surface reservoir in buffering irrigated areas from unfertile sediment inputs. 88% of the sediment-associated organic carbon and 93% of the nitrogen were captured by the rice fields. Irrigation water additionally brought in dissolved nitrogen, resulting in a total nitrogen input of 1.11 Mg ha 1 a-1. Of this amount, 24% was determined to be in the plant-available forms of ammonium and nitrate, a contribution equivalent to 66% of the recommended nitrogen application via chemical fertilizer. The dependence of paddy soil fertility on agricultural practices in the uplands illustrates the vulnerability of irrigated rice to unsustainable land use in the surrounding landscape. Unfortunately, alternatives for upland land use that are not detrimental to soil quality are hard to come by, due to the economic reality of high maize prices on the world market. Conservation measures and agroforestry systems offer potential, but without some form of payment for environmental services, adoption rates remain low. Finding sustainable solutions is especially urgent as climate change is likely to increase the number of extreme rainfall events and hence intensify the redistribution processes already taking place. In this light, the role of trapping elements in landscapes such as paddy fields and surface reservoirs becomes more important as well. As these features are widely spread throughout tropical landscapes, their role in global sediment and nutrient cycles must be taken into account. The methodologies developed in this thesis, for sediment and nutrient transport monitoring and for uncertainty assessment, can aid in closing the data gap that currently hinders a reliable assessment of the consequences of anthropogenic and climate change, both on food security and on environmental impacts, locally, regionally and globally.

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