Browsing by Subject "Gravity estimations"

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International student mobility, student exchange programs, and migration : evidence from gravity estimations
(2022) Reczkowski, Isabella; Felbermayr, Gabriel
The thesis is dedicated to the empirical investigation of international student mobility and is divided into eight chapters. The introductory chapter 1 describes the motivation for the thesis and provides a brief overview of the current literature and the gap that this dissertation fills. Chapter 2 discusses the rationales for cross-border education, describing the four approaches of the OECD (2004) for international student mobility: the mutual understanding approach, the skilled migration approach, the revenue-generating approach, and the capacity building approach. The chapter then discusses the challenges resulting from international student mobility. Besides the brain drain and brain gain phenomenon that occurs when international students decide to work abroad, international student mobility raises the question of how to provide equal access to higher education and ensure the same level of quality and accreditation across the board. Furthermore, the chapter includes a detailed discussion on the challenges that arise when higher education is mainly publicly financed in a world where students and graduates are mobile. This is mainly the case in Europe, whereas students in other countries are accustomed to paying for higher education. Chapter 3 goes on to describe the data on international student mobility used in this work. Since data for years prior to 1998 are only available from printed UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks, this dissertation has constructed a new database entering the data manually for the years 1970 to 1997 for 29 destination countries and almost all countries of origin. The chapter demonstrates that student mobility increased sharply. Starting with an average number of roughly 460 thousand students in the first period covering the years 1970 to 1974, the number grew by a factor of about 8 to roughly 3.7 million students in the last period covering the years 2010 to 2015. This number is strongly concentrated on a few destination and origin countries: while the concentration in the destination countries decreased over the decades which were analyzed, with the top five countries accounting for about 77 percent in the 1970s and 50 percent in the period 2000 to 2015, the concentration in the origin countries increased from about 23 to 33 percent. The decreasing concentration of destination countries demonstrates the strong competition among these countries trying to attract international students. In order to better understand this concentration, chapter 4 provides a descriptive analysis of destination and origin countries. Apart from the five main Anglo-Saxon destination countries–the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand–the European countries France and Germany have always been among the most important destination countries since 1970. Furthermore, Russia and Japan have played an important role and some Asian, European, and Arab countries have also recently emerged as important destination countries. The countries that send the most students abroad are Asia-Pacific Rim countries followed by European countries. With this in mind, three groups of countries have had a major impact on student mobility: Europe, Asia-Pacific countries, and Anglo-Saxon countries. In contrast to the other regions, student mobility in Europe is supported by policy-makers and instruments which are supported by large investments. Therefore, this work strives to investigate the effects of the two famous European programs which were introduced to promote student mobility: the student exchange program Erasmus that was launched in 1987, and the Bologna Process that began in 1999. Chapter 5 strives to test the hypothesis of whether the student exchange program Erasmus increases student mobility between the member countries. The chapter uses data on international student mobility for the years 1999 to 2015 obtained from the electronic UNESCO database for 155 host and 187 origin countries which are merged with a dummy variable on joint membership in the Erasmus program. Using these panel data in a theory-grounded gravity model by running fixed effects methods, the chapter finds that student mobility between Erasmus member countries is, on average, about 53 percent higher. To address the causality question, the chapter follows Wooldridge (2002) and performs an F-test for strict exogeneity and finds a positive causal effect on international student mobility. This effect is more stable for the time during and after the economic crisis. Furthermore, student exchange between Erasmus countries seems to occur more in favor of cultural experience and is not based on economic factors. Chapter 6 repeats these estimates controlling additionally for joint membership in the Bologna Process and finds that student mobility between Bologna Process members is, on average, about 50 percent higher. Importantly, both European programs–Erasmus and the Bologna Process–turn out to be significant determinants separately. Estimating the effect for the time before and after the establishment of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) shows that the impact is higher and more stable since the EHEA was established in 2010. These findings suggest that the Erasmus program and the Bologna Process have fulfilled their goals of increasing student mobility and, therefore, justify their budget. Since the skilled migration approach argues that countries attract international students hoping that they stay in the country of studies afterwards and increase the stock of highly-skilled workers, chapter 7 investigates the question: to what extent do countries that attract foreign students benefit from an increased stock of educated foreign workers? Using information from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks, the chapter constructs a new panel database of bilateral international student mobility for 150 origin countries, 23 host countries for the years 1970 to 2000. These data are matched with information on bilateral stocks of international migrants by educational attainment from Docquier et al. (2008), available for 1990 and 2000. Running theory-founded gravity models by conditional fixed effects Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood methods, this chapter finds that, on average, an increase of students by 10 percent increases the stock of tertiary educated workers in host countries by about 0.9 percent. That average effect is, however, entirely driven by Anglo-Saxon countries. On average, the results imply a student retention rate of about 70 percent. These findings suggest that the costs of educating foreign students are at least partially offset by increased availability of foreign talent. Finally, the last chapter 8 concludes.