Browsing by Subject "Mais"

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Adaptations of maize to low phosphate availability : establishing regulatory networks from large-scale quantitative proteomic profiling
(2022) He, Mingjie; Schulze, Waltraud
Maize (Zea mays) is an important crop in global for human food, animal feed and industrial usage. Suboptimal phosphorus (P) availability is one of the primary constraints for maize growth and productivity (Jianbo Shen et al., 2011; L.pez-Arredondo et al., 2014). Over 70% arable land suffers from P-deficiency, and plants can take up small amounts of P from the soil due to P-fixation. However, over-application of P fertilizer has frequently happened in last decades and resulted in environmental pollution (L.pez- Arredondo et al., 2014). Modern agriculture calls for maintaining productivity while reducing synthetic-P fertilizer inputs and losses, thus, requiring breeding of novel cultivars to increase phosphate use efficiency (PUE) (Balemi and Negisho, 2012; X., Li, Mang, et al., 2021; Mardamootoo et al., 2021). Understanding the regulation of maize to low phosphate(LP)-availability at the molecular level will offer unlimited potential for the development of selection markers and engineering targets in breeding programs. Nowadays, “OMIC” approaches and computational science are developing rapidly. They are advanced tools for investigation of molecular adaptations on a large-scale and in a systemic view. Thereby, the major research task within this thesis is to reveal P-deficiency induced responsive components and regulations at protein level based on proteomic profiles, aiming to provide promising candidate genes/proteins for research on the molecular mechanisms of adaptation to LP-stress, and potentially to provide promising candidate gene/proteins for development of selection markers and engineering targets to obtain desired traits, in the long term goal of improving PUE in novel cultivars. In Chapter 1, we focused on six genotypes (EP1, F2, F142, F160, SF1, SM1) with close genetic background but several contrasting traits to LP-stress, such as PUE (X., Li, Mang, et al., 2021). They were cultured in pot with either sufficient or inefficient P-fertilizer in a climate chamber for one month. The young seedlings were sampled by root and shoot for analysis of multiple traits, transcriptome and proteome. Firstly, we constructed the co-expression network of proteins and transcripts separately using WGCNA method (Langfelder and Horvath, 2008), which predicted potential protein-protein interactions or their co-regulations. Secondly, we categorized proteins/transcripts to modules according to their different coexpression patterns, thus, identified potential determining relationships of modules-traits. Thirdly, we compared the responses between transcripts and proteins, presenting their responses being concordant or dis-concordant. Fourthly, we identified common and genotype-specific P-starvation response modules and biological processes. Finally, we focused on protein kinases, which play roles as regulators, to demonstrated protein kinases-centered network and validated protein interactions between mitogenactivated protein kinase-kinase 1 (MEK1, Zm00001d043609) either with sucrose synthase1 (SH1,Zm00001d045042) or translation elongation factor 1-gamma 3 (eEF1B-γ, Zm00001d046352). MEK1 is a potential genotype-specific regulator via sucrose metabolism and translation elongation process. In Chapter 2, we aimed to adapted an experimental workflow for phosphoproteome analysis in maize, addressing the interference to phosphoproteome quantification by fibers, secondary metabolites and low abundant of phosphorylated proteins. In this manuscript, we described a rapid and universal protocol for both proteome and phosphoproteome analysis that is suitable for cereal crops. The results of phosphoproteome in maize root testing samples showed that proteins within kinase-centered network in Chapter 1 can be largely quantified based on this workflow. It provides a possible way to analyze phosphorylation dynamics to P-starvation responses, it allows further investigation for kinase-centered 1 network in Chapter 1 to identify phosphorylation pairs of “protein kinase – protein substrate”, which will largely expand a view on P-starvation regulations through posttranslational modifications.
Agrogentechnik und Biotechpflanzenproduktion : Entwicklung, Stand und Zukunftspotential
(2016) Kuhn, Ekkehard
Pflanzen sind die Nahrungsgrundlage für Mensch und Tier und werden es bleiben. Was unverfälschte Natur zu bieten hat, konnte nie befriedigen, doch war ein langer, weit in die vorchristliche Zeit zurückreichender Weg zurückzulegen, um von essbaren Wildpflanzen und einfachen Landrassen zu den heutigen Hochleistungssorten bei Getreide, Soja, Raps und anderen zu gelangen. Auch heute ist das Potential der klassischen Pflanzenzüchtung noch keineswegs erschöpft. Genomsequenzierung, auf molekulare Marker gestützte Identifizierung züchterisch wertvoller Merkmale und andere früher unbekannte Methoden können Züchtungsprogramme vereinfachen und die Sortenentwicklung beschleunigen. Es bleibt aber eine prinzipielle Schranke, welche die konventionelle Pflanzenzüchtung von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen nicht überwinden kann: Sie kann die Artgrenzen nicht überspringen und bleibt auf die Nutzung des arteigenen Genvorrats angewiesen. Das änderte sich um 1985, als es erstmals gelang, bakterielle Gene in dafür gut geeignete Modellpflanzen wie den Tabak einzuführen und zwar so, dass sie „exprimiert“ wurden, d. h. ein funktionelles Proteinprodukt lieferten und sich stabil an die sexuellen Nachkommen dieser ersten transgenen Pflanzen vererbten. Zehn Jahre später begann der kommerzielle Anbau von herbizidresistentem und wenig später insektenresistentem Mais in den USA und Kanada. Es war die Geburtsstunde der Agrogentechnik. Heute werden transgene Kulturpflanzen dort, wo ihre prinzipiellen Gegner weniger Einfluss haben als hierzulande, auf mehr als 180 Millionen ha Ackerland angebaut. Mehr als eine Milliarde Menschen und ein Mehrfaches an Nutztieren haben sich bis heute von „Genpflanzen“ und daraus hergestellten Nahrungs- und Futtermitteln ernährt. Der Grund für den Erfolg der neuen Technik liegt darin, dass sie messbare wirtschaftliche und ökologische Vorzüge hat, die sich in niedrigeren Umweltbelastungen, höheren Erträgen und deutlichen Einkommensverbesserungen der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe niederschlagen. Während man die Vorteile der Agrogentechnik heute leicht erkennen kann, sind die ihr zugeschriebenen Risiken spekulativ geblieben. Es gibt weder zwingende theoretische Argumente noch praktische Erfahrungen, die dazu berechtigen, der gentechnischen Pflanzenzüchtung ein gegenüber traditionellen Verfahren größeres Gefahrenpotential zuzuschreiben. Ihre realisierbaren Anwendungen gehen über den gegenwärtig noch dominierenden Anbau herbizid- und insektenresistenter Ackerpflanzen weit hinaus. Sie umfassen Nahrungspflanzen mit erhöhter Krankheitsresistenz, verbesserter Trockentoleranz, besserer Verträglichkeit aus ihnen hergestellter Lebensmittel, ausgeglichenem Gehalt an Aminosäuren, Vitaminen und Spurenelementen ebenso wie Industriepflanzen zur Produktion von Grund- und Wirkstoffen für die Chemie- und Pharmaindustrie. An diesen Entwicklungen arbeiten öffentliche und private Forschungseinrichtungen überall in der Welt. Der Mangel an nutzbarem Ackerland, Trinkwasser und sich abzeichnende Folgen des Klimawandels für die Landwirtschaft erzeugen einen wachsenden Druck zur möglichst wirkungsvollen Nutzung aller verfügbaren Ressourcen. Zwar kann die Agrogentechnik das Welternährungsproblem ebensowenig dauerhaft lösen wie irgendeine andere Technik, solange das exponentielle Wachstum der Erdbevölkerung nicht zum Stillstand kommt. Sie vermag aber die Folgen der Übervölkerung abzumildern; denn sie leistet einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Verbesserung der Grundversorgung und zu einer effizienteren, die Naturvorräte schonenden Landwirtschaft. Die Verdrängung der konventionellen Sorten durch transgene wird deshalb weitergehen. Transgene Ackerpflanzen der ersten Generation, die überwiegend nur ein transgenes Merkmal tragen, werden gegenwärtig rasch durch modernere Stapelsorten ersetzt, die zwei oder mehrere Transgene exprimieren. Sie sind oft herbizidtolerant und gleichzeitig gegen alle wichtigen Schädlinge resistent, die in den jeweiligen Anbaugebieten vorkommen. Gleichzeitig kommen immer mehr Sorten auf den Markt, die nicht nur für die Produzenten Vorteile haben sondern auch ernährungsphysiologisch wertvoller sind als ihre konventionellen Vorläufer. Am Ende dieser Entwicklung werden die konventionellen Sorten auf dem Agrarweltmarkt kaum noch eine Rolle spielen. Dieses Buch behandelt Geschichte, Methoden, Entwicklungsstand und Zukunftspotential der Agrogentechnik, beschreibt typische Vertreter dieses Kulturpflanzentyps und gibt anhand ausgewählter noch im Versuchsstadium stehender Prototypen einen Ausblick auf die kommende Entwicklung und ihre absehbaren Auswirkungen auf die Tier- und Pflanzenproduktion.
Analysis of phytotoxicity and plant growth stimulation by multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(2016) Zaytseva, Olga; Neumann, Günter
Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding area of science and technology, which has gained a great interest due extraordinary properties of nanomaterials with numerous potential fields for practical application. Meanwhile, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are among the ten most-produced engineered nanomaterials worldwide with applications in automotive industry, building and construction, electronics, and many other industrial sectors, showing also a great potential for integration into environmental and agricultural applications. However, during the last decade it has been demonstrated that nanomaterials can exert significant and extremely variable effects also on living organisms. In higher plants, both, positive and negative responses on growth and development have been reported but the related mechanisms are still not entirely understood. This study presents a systematic assessment of CNT effects on representative crops under standardized conditions with special emphasis on interactions with plant nutrition. After the introductory background (Chapter 1), presenting a comprehensive literature review on carbon nanomaterials with special emphasis on plant responses, environmental and agricultural applications, Chapter 2 describes the impact of selected multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on seed germination and early seedling development of different crops (soybean−Glycine max, maize−Zea mays, and common bean−Phaseolus vulgaris). In face of highly variable plant responses to CNT treatments reported in the literature, the study was designed as a systematic analysis under standardized growth conditions, dissecting the effects of one single type of MWCNTs, depending on plant species, MWCNT dosage, duration of exposure to MWCNT treatments, and plant-developmental stage, including imbibition, germination and seedling development. Short-term seed treatments (36 h) with MWCNTs reduced the speed of water uptake particularly by soybean seeds, associated with an increased germination percentage and reduced formation of abnormal seedlings. However, during later seedling development, negative effects on fine root production were recorded for all investigated plant species. Inhibition of root growth was associated with reduced metabolic activity of the root tissue and a reduction of nitrate uptake, which could be mainly attributed to the smaller root system. The results demonstrated that even under standardized growth conditions largely excluding external factors, plant responses to MWCNT exposure exhibit differences, depending on plant species but also on the physiological status and the developmental stage of individual plants. Soybean was selected as a model plant for further studies since both, positive and negative effects of the same dose of MWCNTs (1000 mg L-1) could be observed even in the same individual plants. Chapter 3 investigates effects of short-term soybean seed exposure (36 h) to MWCNTs on seedling development, depending on the nutrient availability of the substrate. At 8 DAS stunted growth and poor fine root production were first detectable in seedlings germinating on moist filter paper without additional nutrient supply. This effect was preceded by reduced metabolic activity of the seedling tissues detectable by vital staining already at 2 DAS. Root growth inhibition was a long-lasting effect, detectable in soil culture up to 38 DAS. More detailed investigations revealed zinc (Zn) deficiency as a major growth-limiting factor. The growth of affected soil-grown plants was recovered by foliar application of ZnSO4 or by cultivation in nutrient solution supplied with soluble ZnSO4. A more detailed investigation of the physiological mechanisms related with the inhibitory effects of MWCNTs on plant growth is presented in Chapter 4. Oxidative stress was identified as a major factor determining MWCNT-induced root growth inhibition in soybean, demonstrated by recovery of root development after external supplementation with antioxidants. Induction of oxidative stress by MWCNT application was detectable already after the 36 h imbibition period particularly in the tips of the radicle as indicated by accumulation of superoxide anions, reduced triphenyltetrazolium chloride vital staining, and induction of superoxide dismutase activity. The expression pattern of the oxidative stress indicators coincided with preferential accumulation of MWCNTs in the cells of the root tip and was reverted by external application of proline as antioxidant. MWCNT-induced plant damage could be reverted by external supplementation of micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Mn) as important cofactors for various enzymes involved in oxidative stress defense (SOD, biosynthesis of antioxidative phenolics). Accordingly, SOD activity increased in seedling roots after Zn supplementation. During germination, the CNT treatments inhibited particularly the Zn translocation from the cotyledons to the growing seedling, and CNTs exhibited a selective adsorption potential for Zn and Cu, which may be involved in internal immobilization of micronutrients. Therefore, this study demonstrated for the first time that phytotoxicity of CNTs is linked with disturbances of micronutrient homeostasis during seedling development. Implications for environmental phytotoxicity assessment of MWCNTs and their potential applications in agriculture are discussed in a final overview presented in Chapter 5.
Assessing the genetic variation of phosphate efficiency in European maize (Zea mays L.)
(2022) Weiß, Thea Mi; Würschum, Tobias
Why should plant breeders in Central Europe care about phosphate efficiency? Soil phosphorus levels have mostly reached high to very high levels over the last decades in intensively farmed, livestock-rich regions. However, the European Union demands a restructuring of the agricultural production systems through setting ambitious goals envisaged in the Farm to Fork Strategy. By 2030, fertilizer use should be reduced by 20 %, nutrient losses by at least 50 %. As a consequence, farmers have to be even more efficient with crop inputs, among them the globally limited resource of phosphorus fertilizers, while maintaining high yields. Plant breeding means thinking ahead. Therefore, phosphate-efficient varieties should be developed to help farmers meet this challenge and reduce the need for additional fertilizers. One prerequisite to reach this target is that genotypic variation for the relevant traits is available. Moreover, approaches that assist selection by accurate but also time- and resource-efficient prediction of genotypes are highly valuable in breeding. Finally, the choice of the selection environment and suitable trait assessment for the improvement of phosphate efficiency under well-supplied conditions, need to be elaborated. In this dissertation, a diverse set of maize genotypes from ancient landraces to modern hybrids was investigated for phosphate efficiency-related traits under well-supplied P soil conditions. Multi-environmental field trials were conducted in 2019 and 2020. The reaction to different starter fertilizer treatments of the 20 commercially most important maize hybrids grown in Germany was studied. In the hybrid trial, the factor environment had a significant effect on the impact of starter fertilizers. Especially in early developmental stages genotypes showed a different response to the application of starter fertilizers. On the overall very well-supplied soils, we observed no significant genotype-by-starter fertilizer interaction. Nonetheless, we identified hybrids, which maintained high yields also if no starter fertilizer was provided. Thus, it seems that sufficient variation is available to select and breed for phosphate efficiency under reduced fertilizer conditions. Furthermore, the concept of phenomic prediction, based on near-infrared spectra instead of marker data to predict the performance of genotypes, was applied to 400 diverse lines of maize and compared to genomic prediction. For this, we used seed-based near-infrared spectroscopy data to perform phenomic selection in our line material, which comprised doubled haploid lines from landraces and elite lines. We observed that phenomic prediction generally performed comparable to genomic prediction or even better. In particular, the phenomic selection approach holds great potential for predictions among different groups of breeding material as it is less prone to artifacts resulting from population structure. Phenomic selection is therefore deemed a useful and cost-efficient tool to predict complex traits, including phosphorus concentration and grain yield, which together form the basis to determine phosphate efficiency. Lastly, 20 different indicators for phosphate efficiency were calculated, the genetic variation of the different measures present in this unique set of lines was quantified, and recommendations for breeding were derived. Of the different measures for phosphate efficiency reported in literature, Flint landraces demonstrated valuable allelic diversity with regard to phosphate efficiency during the seedling stage. Due to the highly complex genetic architecture of phosphate efficiency-related traits, a combination of genomic and phenotypic selection appears best suited for their improvement in breeding. Taken together, phosphate efficiency, including its definition and meaning, is largely dependent on the available phosphorus in the target environment as well as the farm type, which specifies the harvested produce and thereby the entire phosphorus removal from the field. In conclusion, future maize breeding should work in environments that are similar to the future target environments, meaning reduced fertilizer inputs and eventually lower soil P levels. Our results demonstrate that breeding of varieties, which perform well without starter fertilizers is feasible and meaningful under the well-supplied conditions prevalent in Central Europe. For the improvement of the highly complex trait phosphate efficiency through breeding we recommend to apply genomic and phenomic prediction along with classical phenotypic screening of genotypes and by this making our food systems more resilient towards upcoming challenges in agriculture.
Biochemical composition of biomass and its impact on the prediction of the specific methane yield potential
(2017) Mukengele, Michael Mutombo; Jungbluth, Thomas
This thesis analyzes the biomass biochemical composition and its influence on the specific methane yield potential of energy crops. The influence of the ensiling technique and the specific methane yield potential gained using a batch-test scaled up to semi-continuous flow system were also assessed. The results show that through ensiling process the risk of over-estimating the specific methane yield potential was particularly high for silages of low DM content. Through ensiling up to 8.6% higher methane yield potential could be achieved. The impact was different depending on the maturity index of the crop material. The evaluation of the bioconversion efficiency in batch and semi-continuous flow digester showed that 80% to 87% of the theoretical methane yield potential could be recovered in a batch-test. By scaling up batch the bioconversion efficiency decreased of up to 19%. The investigation on maize showed that the absolute values of the biochemical crop traits and in-vitro estimates of digestibility for whole-crop were poor predictors for high specific methane yield potential (R² = 0.31 to 0.32). Other crops alternative to maize showed a wider variation range in specific methane yield potential. Reproductive crop fractions of lipid rich crops revealed higher specific methane yields reaching 0.455 mN³ CH4/ kg ODM in sunflower crown and 0.598 mN³ CH4/ kg ODM in rape seed. The stalk/stem fraction of these crops seemed to be the most limiting factor for degradability. Conversely, carbohydrates rich crops (rye and sorghum) showed methane yields slightly lower or equal to those of maize.
Bioeffector products for plant growth promotion in agriculture : modes of action and the application in the field
(2021) Weber, Nino Frederik; Neumann, Günter
Modern agriculture faces a conflict between sustainability and the demand for a higher food production. This conflict is exacerbated by climate change and its influence on vegetation, ecology and human society. To reduce land use, the reduction of yield losses and food waste is crucial. Moreover a sustainable intensification is necessary to increase yields, while at the same time input of limited resources such as drinking water or fertilizer should be kept as low as possible. This might be achieved by improving nutrient recycling and plant resistance to abiotic or biotic stress. Bioeffectors (BE) comprise seaweed or plant extracts and microbial inoculums that may stimulate plant growth by phytohormonal changes and increase plant tolerance to abiotic stress (biostimulants), solubilize or mobilize phosphorus from sparingly soluble sources such as Al/Fe or Ca-phosphates in the soil, rock phosphates, recycling fertilizer or organic phosphorus sources like phytate (biofertilizer), or improve plant resistance against pathogens by induced-systemic resistance (ISR) or antibiosis (biocontrol). For this study, in total 18 BE products were tested in germination, pot and field experiments for their potential to improve plant growth, cold stress tolerance, nutrient acquisition and yield in maize and tomato. Additionally, a gene expression analysis in maize was performed using whole transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq) after the application of two potential plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), the Pseudomonas sp. strain DSMZ 13134 “Proradix” and the Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain FZB42. Seaweed products supplemented with high amounts of the micronutrients Zn and Mn were effective in reducing detrimental cold stress reactions in maize whereas microbial products and seaweed extracts without micronutrient supplementation failed under the experimental conditions. At optimal temperature the product containing the Pseudomonas sp. strain was repeatedly able to stimulate root and shoot growth of maize plants whereas in tomato only in heat-treated soil substrate significant effects were observed. Results indicate that the efficacy of the product was mainly attributed to stimulation or shifts in the soil microbial community. Additionally, the FZB42 strain was able to stimulate root and plant growth in some experiments whereas the effects were less reproducible and more sensitive to environmental conditions. Fungal BE products were less effective in plant growth stimulation and showed detrimental effects in some experiments. Under the applied experimental conditions BE-derived plant growth stimulation mainly was attributed to biostimulation but aspects of biofertilization or biocontrol cannot be excluded, as all experiments were conducted in non-sterile soil substrates. Root and shoot growth are stimulated in response to hormonal shifts. In the gene expression analysis only weak responses to BE treatments were observed, as previously reported from other studies conducted under non-sterile conditions. Nevertheless, some plant stress responses were observed that resembled in some aspects those reported for phosphorus (P) deficiency in others those reported for ISR/SAR. Especially the activation of plant defence mechanisms, such as the production of secondary metabolites, ethylene production and reception and the expression of several classes of stress-related transcription factors, including JA-responsive JAZ genes, was observed. It also seems probable that in plants growing in PGPR-drenched soils, especially at high application rates, a sink stimulation for assimilates triggers changes in photosynthetic activity and root growth leading to an improved nutrient acquisition. Nevertheless, due to the complexity of interactions in natural soil environments as well as under practice conditions, a designation of a distinct mode of action for plant growth stimulation by microbial BEs is not realistic. A comparison of the overall results with those reported in literature or other working groups in a common research project (“Biofector”) supported the often-reported low reproducibility of plant growth promotion effects by BE products under applied conditions. Factors that influenced BE efficacy were application time and rates, temperature, soil buffer capacity, phosphorus sources and nitrogen fertilization, light conditions and the soil microbial community. Results indicate that in maize cultivation seed treatment is the most economic application technique for microbial products whereas for vegetable or high-value crops with good economic benefit soil drenching is recommended. For seaweed extracts foliar application seems to be the most economic and efficient choice. Furthermore, results emphasize the importance of a balanced natural soil microflora for plant health and yield stability.
Biometrical Analyses of Epistasis and the Relationship between Line per se and Testcross Performance of Agronomic Traits in Elite Populations of European Maize (Zea mays L.)
(2005) Mihaljevic, Renata; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
Relations of yield and other important agronomic traits of inbred lines to the same traits in hybrids have been studied from the time of initiation of hybrid breeding to the present. Because crossing lines to a tester and conducting yield trials are expensive and time-consuming, reliable information on inbred lines that is indicative of their testcross performance is crucial for optimum testing schemes in hybrid breeding as well as simultaneous improvement of commercial hybrids and their inbred parents. It has therefore been of great importance to determine the magnitude of correlation between line per se performance (LP) and testcross performance (TP) and investigate if epistasis influences this correlation. The comprehensive study on hand was performed with five populations (F3 to F6 lines) differing in size (ranging from 71 to 344), level of inbreeding, and the number of common parents. The populations employed were derived from three biparental crosses within the heterotic pool of European elite flint maize (Zea mays L.). All five populations were evaluated for TP (using an unrelated dent tester inbred) of five agronomically important quantitative traits: grain yield, grain moisture, kernel weight, protein concentration, and plant height. Four of these populations were also evaluated for LP of the same five traits. The objectives were to (i) estimate phenotypic and genotypic correlations between LP and TP within four populations for all five traits, (ii) map quantitative trait loci (QTL) for LP and TP in four and five populations, respectively, for all five traits, (iii) validate estimated QTL effects and positions for TP by assessing QTL congruency among testcross populations differing in size and genetic background, (iv) determine the value of LP-QTL for the prediction of TP, (v) estimate the importance of epistatic effects for LP and TP of grain yield and grain moisture by generation means analysis as well as genome-wide testing for epistatic marker pairs, and (vi) draw conclusions regarding the prospects of marker-assisted selection (MAS). Genotypic correlations between LP and TP, rg(LP, TP), estimated herein were comparable with those obtained for European flint or U.S. dent material. The magnitude of rg(LP, TP) was trait-specific: for traits of high heritability, i.e. grain moisture, kernel weight, protein concentration, and plant height, estimates were generally larger than 0.7 across all four populations, whereas for grain yield, estimates were consistently lower and did not exceed the intermediate level of 0.5. For grain yield, lowest rg(LP, TP) were estimated with lowest precision (largest confidence intervals). This requires testing for both LP and TP and/or combining the data in a selection index to ensure sufficient inbred performance (seed production) and yield improvement. However, combined selection for LP and TP proved less efficient than sole selection for TP unless unadapted material was employed. For kernel weight, protein concentration, and plant height, we detected "large" congruent QTL across testcross populations derived from the same cross, which individually explained up to 46% of the validated genotypic variance p. However, as the p values estimated from validation were still below the corresponding heritability estimates, MAS will be superior to phenotypic selection only if it is more cost-efficient. For the above traits, similar numbers of QTL for LP and TP were detected across populations. More than half of the QTL regions detected for LP were in common for LP and TP in the largest population (N = 280). To assess the value of QTL identified for LP in predicting TP, we calculated the genotypic correlation rg(MLP, YTP). This parameter assesses QTL congruency for LP and TP quantitatively and is thus the key parameter for assessing the prospects of MAS. The number of common QTL for LP and TP (qualitative QTL congruency) was generally not indicative of the magnitude of rg(MLP, YTP) due to the differences in the effect size of the respective QTL detected for LP and used for the prediction of TP. For all traits, rg(MLP, YTP) were smaller than rg(LP, TP). This is because rg(MLP, YTP) is only predictive for the validated proportion of genotypic variance explained by the QTL for LP, which was generally below 50% because of the limited power of QTL detection, in particular with small sample sizes below 100. Only if QTL detected for LP explain a substantial proportion of the genotypic variance, MAS based on these QTL can be applied, provided it is more cost-efficient than an indirect phenotypic selection for TP based on LP. QTL detection power was drastically reduced for the complex trait grain yield with a presumably large number of small QTL underlying its genetic architecture. Thus, the number of common QTL for LP and TP as well as the QTL congruency across testcross populations was much lower for grain yield than the other four traits. Estimated gene action of QTL detected for LP was primarily additive for grain yield. Evidence for dominance and/or epistasis, which may be a reason for the low rg(LP, TP) and the low number of common QTL for LP and TP was generally weak. Both generation means analysis for LP and TP and genome-wide search for epistatic marker pairs yielded no evidence for epistasis. This is not only because the detected epistatic effects could not be validated, but also because there is low chance to find epistasis unless the generation examined displays the full epistatic variance such as expected from doubled haploids produced from an F1 cross. Thus, it is anticipated that the relative importance of epistatic effects in hybrid maize breeding may strongly increase with the currently happening shift in line development from recurrent selfing towards the production of doubled haploids.
Comparison of omics technologies for hybrid prediction
(2019) Westhues, Matthias; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
One of the great challenges for plant breeders is dealing with the vast number of putative candidates, which cannot be tested exhaustively in multi-environment field trials. Using pedigree records helped breeders narrowing down the number of candidates substantially. With pedigree information, only a subset of candidates need to be subjected to exhaustive tests of their phenotype whereas the phenotype of the majority of untested relatives is inferred from their common pedigree. A caveat of pedigree information is its inability to capture Mendelian sampling and to accurately reflect relationships among individuals. This shortcoming was mitigated with the advent of marker assays covering regions harboring causal quantitative trait loci. Today, the prediction of untested candidates using information from genomic markers, called genomic prediction, is a routine procedure in larger plant breeding companies. Genomic prediction has revolutionized the prediction of traits with complex genetic architecture but, just as pedigree, cannot properly capture physiological epistasis, referring to complex interactions among genes and endophenotypes, such as RNA, proteins and metabolites. Given their intermediate position in the genotype-phenotype cascade, endophenotypes are expected to represent some of the information missing from the genome, thereby potentially improving predictive abilities. In a first study we explored the ability of several predictor types to forecast genetic values for complex agronomic traits recorded on maize hybrids. Pedigree and genomic information were included as the benchmark for evaluating the merit of metabolites and gene expression data in genetic value prediction. Metabolites, sampled from maize plants grown in field trials, were poor predictors for all traits. Conversely, root-metabolites, grown under controlled conditions, were moderate to competitive predictors for the traits fat as well as dry matter yield. Gene expression data outperformed other individual predictors for the prediction of genetic values for protein and the economically most relevant trait dry matter yield. A genome-wide association study suggested that gene expression data integrated SNP interactions. This might explain the superior performance of this predictor type in the prediction of protein and dry matter yield. Small RNAs were probed for their potential as predictors, given their involvement in transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation. Regardless of the trait, small RNAs could not outperform other predictors. Combinations of predictors did not considerably improve the predictive ability of the best single predictor for any trait but improved the stability of their performance across traits. By assigning different weights to each predictor, we evaluated each predictors optimal contribution for attaining maximum predictive ability. This approach revealed that pedigree, genomic information and gene expression data contribute equally when maximizing predictive ability for grain dry matter content. When attempting to maximize predictive ability for grain yield, pedigree information was superfluous. For genotypes having only genomic information, gene expression data were imputed by using genotypes having both, genomic as well as gene expression data. Previously, this single-step prediction framework was only used for qualitative predictors. Our study revealed that this framework can be employed for improving the cost-effectiveness of quantitative endophenotypes in hybrid prediction. We hope that these studies will further promote exploring endophenotypes as additional predictor types in breeding.
Crop yield and fate of nitrogen fertilizer in maize-based soil conservation systems in Western Thailand
(2021) Wongleecharoen, Chalermchart; Cadisch, Georg
The increase in food demand and land scarcity in high-potential lowland areas have forced cropping intensification with a transformation of land use from subsistence to permanent agriculture in remote hillside in Southeast Asia. This change and inappropriate land use are the prime cause of soil degradation by erosion, which have negatively affected the agricultural systems productivity and sustainability in Thailand. Therefore, vulnerable land in sloping terrain is classified as unsuitable for continuous production of arable crops unless conservation measures are introduced to stabilize the landscape. Even though conservation practices can stabilize sloping land, farmers have not been widely adopted the measures due to various constraints, such as crop area loss and crop-tree competition. To improve land use management, a two-year study (2010-2011) was conducted at the Queen Sirikit research station (13°28’N, 99°16’E), Ratchaburi Province, Thailand, on a hillside with a slope of around 20%. The treatments consisted of (T1) maize (Zea mays L.) mono-crop under tillage and fertilization, (T2) maize intercropped with chili (Capsicum annuum L.) under tillage and fertilization, (T3) maize intercropped with chili, application of minimum tillage plus Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC) relay cropping and fertilizer application, (T4) maize intercropped with chili, application of minimum tillage with Jack bean relay cropping and fertilizer application plus perennial hedges of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, (T5) as T3 but without fertilization, and (T6) as T4 but without fertilization. There was an additional plot of chili sole cropping to calculate the land equivalent ratio (LER). The first part of the study evaluated yield performance and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops using the 15N isotope technique under diverse fertilized cropping systems during the first year. Maize grain yields were lower in T2 (3.1 Mg ha-1), T3 (2.6 Mg ha-1) and T4 (3.3 Mg ha-1) than in the control (T1) (6.7 Mg ha-1). The total returns from maize and chili yields were 1,914, 5,129, 3,829, 3,900, 3,494, and 2,976 USD ha-1, for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6, respectively. Higher economic returns in mixed crop systems, by selling both maize and chilies, compensated for the maize area loss by intercropping. Maize 15NUE was highest in T2 (53.5%), being significantly higher than in T1 (47.0%), T3 (45.5%), and T4 (45.7%). Overall system’s NUE in T2 (56.8%) was comparable to T1 (53.8%) and T4 (54.5%) but significantly lower in T3 (48.6%). Minimum tillage and hedgerows (despite their positive filter effect) did not increase NUE but adversely affected maize growth during the establishment phase. The second part of the study examined nitrogen fertilizers fate and quantified partial nitrogen budgets at plot level over two cropping seasons for various maize-based cropping systems with or without fertilizer application. Overall plant uptake of fertilizer 15N applied to maize was 48.6-56.8% over the first season, while residual fertilizer 15N recovery of plants was only 2.3-4.9% over the subsequent season. The quantity of applied labelled N remaining in the soil at the end of season 1 and season 2 was 6.2-28.1% and 7.7-28.6%, respectively. Thus, 60.0-76.0% in season 1 and 12.7-31.3% in season 2 of the applied fertilizer 15N were accounted for within the plant-soil system. Consequently, 24.0-40.0% and 12.9-16.1% of labelled fertilizer N were not accounted for at the end of season 1 and season 2, respectively. The derived N balance over two years revealed severe soil N depletion under T1 (-202 kg N ha-1), T5 (-86 kg N ha-1) and T6 (-48 kg N ha-1), and a slightly negative N budget under T2 (-5 kg N ha-1). In contrast, T3 (87 kg N ha-1) and T4 (62 kg N ha-1) had positive N balances. The increase of N input via additional N fertilizer applied to chili and symbiotic N2 fixation of legumes, and the reduction of N losses by soil erosion and unaccounted fertilizer N (probably lost via leaching, volatilization and denitrification) were the main factors of the positive N balances under maize-chili intercropping systems with conservation measures and fertilization (T3 and T4). Maize yield decline under T1, T2, T5 and T6 in season 2 was related to negative N balances, while maize yield increase under T3 and T4 was related to positive N balances. However, maize-chili intercropping with fertilization had some advantage (LER > 1.0) relative to sole species cropping. Moreover, total returns from crop yields in season 2 of all maize-chili intercroppings (1,378-1,818 USD ha-1) were higher than chili sole cropping (1,321 USD ha-1), which pointed to its crucial role in decreasing production risk by reducing yield loss by pests and diseases observed in chili plants. The third part of the study used combined data of stable isotope discrimination and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to improve understanding of competition at the crop-soil-hedge interface. Hedges significantly reduced maize grain yield and aboveground biomass in rows close to hedgerows. ERT revealed water depletion was stronger in T1 than in T4 and T6, confirming time domain reflectometry (TDR) and leaf area data. In T4, water depletion was higher in maize rows close to the hedge than rows distant to hedges and maize grain δ13C was significantly less negative in rows close to the hedge ( 10.33‰) compared to distant ones ( 10.64‰). Lack of N increased grain δ13C in T6 ( 9.32‰, p ≤ 0.001). Both methods were negatively correlated with each other (r= 0.66, p ≤ 0.001). Combining ERT with grain δ13C and %N allowed identifying that maize growth close to hedges was limited by N and not by water supply. In conclusion, the results suggested a significant positive interaction between mineral N fertilizer, intercropping systems and soil conservation measures in maintaining or improving crop yields and N balances in Thailand’s hillside agriculture. Simultaneously, combining ERT imaging and 13C isotopic discrimination approaches improved the understanding of spatial-temporal competition patterns at the hedge-soil-crop interface and pointed out that competition in maize-based hedgerow systems was driven by nitrogen rather than water limitation. Therefore, sustainable agriculture might be achieved if farmers in Thailand combine soil conservation measures with appropriate and targeted N fertilizer use.
Design of breeding strategies for energy maize in Central Europe
(2012) Grieder, Christoph; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
The area of maize (Zea mays L.) grown for production of biogas has tremendously increased in Germany during the past decade. Thus, breeding companies have a keen interest to develop special varieties for this new market segment. A high methane yield per area (MY), which depends multiplicatively on dry matter yield (DMY) and methane fermentation yield (MFY), is required to ensure the efficiency of biogas maize cultivation. However, information on the targeted biogas maize ideotype is still missing and estimates of relevant quantitative genetic parameters for representative material are required to design optimum breeding strategies. We conducted a large field experiment to assess the relevant traits in biogas maize, their variation, and associations among them. In detail, our objectives were to (1) determine MFY and its production kinetics as well as the chemical composition, (2) examine the relationship of MFY and traits related to its kinetics with plant chemical composition and silage quality traits like in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) and metabolizable energy concentration (MEC); (3) examine the potential of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for prediction of traits related to methane production; (4) evaluate a large population of inbred lines and their testcrosses under field conditions for agronomic and quality traits; (5) estimate variance components and heritabilities (h2) of traits relevant to biogas production; (6) study correlations among traits as well as between inbred line per se (LP) and testcross performance (TP); and (7) draw conclusions for breeding maize as a substrate for biogas production. For this purpose, a representative set of 285 dent inbred lines from diverse origins and their 570 testcross progenies with two adapted flint testers was produced. Both material groups were evaluated in field experiments conducted in six environments (three locations, two years) in Germany. For analysis of MFY, samples of a diverse core set of 16 inbred lines and their 32 testcrosses were analyzed using the Hohenheim Biogas Yield Test, a discontinuous, laboratory fermentation assay. The kinetics of methane production was assessed by non-linear regression. Estimates of h2 for MFY measured after short fermentation time (3 days) were high, but genotypic variance and, therefore, also h2 decreased towards the end of the fermentation period (35 days). This was presumably the consequence of a nearly complete degradation of all chemical components during the long fermentation period. This interpretation was supported by strong correlations of MFY with chemical components, IVDOM and MEC for the early, but not the late fermentation stages. Based on the samples in the core set, NIRS calibrations were developed for MFY, parameters related to the kinetics of methane production, and chemical composition. With a coefficient of determination from validation (R2V) of 0.82, accuracy of prediction was sufficiently high for the maximum methane production rate, which is related to the early fermentation phase, but not satisfactory for the time needed to reach 95% of a sample?s final MFY (R2V = 0.51). In agreement with the trend of h2, performance of NIRS to predict MFY on day 35 (R2V = 0.77) was lower than for MFY on day 3 (R2V = 0.85), but still at a satisfactory level, as was the case for concentrations of different chemical components. Hence, NIRS proved to be a powerful tool for prediction of MFY and chemical composition in the main experiment. For TP, estimates of variance components from the main experiments revealed that general combining ability (GCA) was the major source of variation. The very tight correlation of MY with DMY but not with MFY indicated that variation in MY was primarily attributable to differences in DMY. Compared to MEC, MFY showed a weaker association with chemical composition. Genotypic correlation (rg) of MFY was strongest with non-degradable lignin (-0.58). Correlation of MFY with starch was not significant and indicated a lower importance of high cob proportions for biogas maize than for forage maize. Hence, to improve MY, selection should primarily focus on increasing DMY. Results for LP in the main experiment largely confirmed results from testcrosses and favor selection for high dry matter yielding genotypes with less emphasis on ear proportion. Estimates of rg between LP and GCA were highest (> 0.94) for maturity traits (days to silking, dry matter concentration) and moderate (> 0.65) for DMY and MY. Indirect selection for GCA on basis of LP looks promising for maturity traits, plant height, and to some extent also for DMY.
Development and applications of Plabsoft : a computer program for population genetic data analyses and simulations in plant breeding
(2008) Maurer, Hans Peter; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
Marker-assisted breeding approaches are promising tools for enhancement of the conventional plant breeding process. They have been successfully applied in many areas such as plant variety protection, classification of germplasm, assessment of genetic diversity, mapping of genes underlying important agronomic traits, and using the mapping information for selection decisions. Powerful and flexible bioinformatic tools are urgently required for a better integration of molecular marker applications and classical plant breeding methods. The objective of my thesis work was to develop and apply Plabsoft, a computer program for population genetic data analyses and simulations in plant breeding. The assumption of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a cornerstone of many concepts in population and quantitative genetics. Therefore, tests for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are of crucial importance, but the assumptions underlying asymptotic chi-square tests are often not met in datasets from plant breeding programs. I developed and implemented in Plabsoft a new algorithm for exact tests of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium with multiple alleles. The newly derived algorithm has considerable computational advantages over previously described algorithms and extends substantially the range of problems that can be tested. Knowledge about the amount and distribution of linkage disequilibrium (LD) in breeding populations is of fundamental importance to assess the prospects for gene mapping with whole-genome association studies. To analyze LD in breeding populations, I implemented various LD measures in Plabsoft and developed a new significance test for these LD measures. The routines were employed to analyze LD in 497 elite maize lines from a commercial hybrid breeding program, which were fingerprinted by 81 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers covering the entire genome. Strong LD was detected and, therefore, whole-genome association studies were recommended as promising. However, LD between unlinked loci will most likely result in a high rate of false positives. The prediction of hybrid performance with DNA markers facilitates the identification of superior hybrids. The single marker models used so far do not take into account the correlation between allele frequencies at linked markers. To overcome this problem, the concept of haplotype blocks was proposed. I developed and implemented in Plabsoft three alternative algorithms for haplotype block detection suitable for plant breeding. The algorithms were applied for the haplotype-based prediction of the hybrid performance of 270 hybrids, the parents of which were fingerprinted with 20 amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primer combinations. Employing haplotypes resulted in an improved prediction of hybrid performance compared with single marker models. Consequently, haplotype-based prediction methods have a high potential to improve substantially the efficiency of hybrid breeding programs. Computer simulations can be employed to solve population genetic problems in plant breeding, for which the simplifying assumptions underlying the classical population genetic theory do not hold true. However, before the start of my thesis no flexible simulation software was available. I developed algorithms for simulation of single breeding steps and entire plant breeding programs and implemented these in Plabsoft. The routines allow the simulation of plant breeding programs as they are conducted in practice. The simulation routines of Plabsoft were validated by simulating two marker-assisted backcross programs in rice conducted by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). In the simulations, the frequency distributions of the proportion of recurrent parent genome in the backcross populations were assessed. The simulation results were in good agreement with the experimental data. Therefore, computer simulations are a useful tool for pre-test estimation of selection response in marker-assisted backcrossing. The application of Plabsoft was exemplified by two studies in maize. In the first study, the expected LD decay in the intermating generations of two recurrent selections programs was determined with simulations. This application demonstrates the use of Plabsoft to solve problems for which analytical results are not available. In the second study, the forces generating and maintaining LD in a hybrid maize breeding program were investigated with computer simulations. This application demonstrates the capability of modeling complex long-term breeding programs as performed in practice. The studies of my thesis provide an example for the broad range of possible applications of Plabsoft. In addition to the presented studies, Plabsoft has so far been employed in about 40 further studies, which corroborates the usefulness of Plabsoft for integrating new genomic tools in applied plant breeding programs.
Development and fine mapping of markers closely linked to the SCMV resistance loci Scmv1 and Scmv2 in European maize (Zea mays L.)
(2002) Dußle, Christina M.; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) is an important disease in European maize cultivars (Zea mays L.). Because of its non-persistent transmission by aphid vectors, it is not possible to control SCMV directly. Therefore, cultivation of resistant maize varieties is an efficient way to control SCMV infections. The overall objectives of this study were the genetic analysis of SCMV resistance in cross F7 x FAP1360A and the identification of closely linked markers to the SCMV resistance genes Scmv1 on chromosome 6 and Scmv2 on chromosome 3 for map-based cloning and marker-assisted selection (MAS). The technical objectives were to (1) identify in particular the location of Scmv1 and Scmv2 on chromosomes 3 and 6 in cross F7 x FAP1360A, (2) estimate the gene action of the alleles present at these loci, (3) enrich the SCMV resistance regions surrounding Scmv1 and Scmv2 with amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers by applying a modified targeted bulked segregant analysis, tBSA, (4) convert AFLP markers into codominant, simple PCR-based markers as a tool for MAS and map-based cloning of Scmv1 and Scmv2 and, (5) assess resistance gene analogues (RGAs) as potential candidate genes for Scmv1 and Scmv2. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping SSR markers revealed the presence of two QTL on chromosome 6 (Scmv1a and Scmv1b) and one QTL on chromosome 3 (Scmv2). tBSA identified 24 AFLP and 25 SSR markers adjacent to either Scmv1 or Scmv2. AFLP marker E35M62-1, closely linked to Scmv1 on chromosome 6, was successfully converted into an indel marker. For chromosome 3, AFLP marker E33M61-2 was converted into a CAPS marker. Both converted AFLP markers mapped to the same chromosome region as their original AFLP markers. Development of CAPS of the RGAs and mapping in relation to SCMV resistance genes Scmv1 and Scmv2 identified pic19 and pic13 as potential candidates for these resistance genes. In this study, useful markers were developed for applications in MAS. Because inheritance of SCMV resistance is strongly affected by the environment, MAS enables the selection of resistant individuals independently of field experiments. Furthermore, MAS can assist breeders to identify resistant individuals before flowering and to pyramid resistance genes in elite inbred lines. Another benefit of these closely linked markers is their application for map-based cloning. Final evidence, whether there are one or more genes clustered on chromosomes 3 and 6, conferring resistance against SCMV, can only be solved after cloning these genes.
Development of a generic, model-based approach to optimize light distribution and productivity in strip-intercropping systems
(2014) Munz, Sebastian; Claupein, Wilhelm
Due to a growing world population, an extension of bioenergy production and the larger proportion of meat and dairy products in the human diet, with the latter particularly in India and China, the demand for agricultural products will further increase. Under decreasing resources and negative environmental impacts related to past intensification, more sustainable agricultural production systems need to be developed in order to meet the future demand for agricultural products. China, as the most populous nation with an enormous economic growth since the end of the 1970’s, plays a major role in global agricultural production. On a national level, agricultural production has to be increased by 35% during the next 20 years. However, land and water resources in China are very limited. With this in mind, the Sino-German International Research Training Group (IRTG) entitled ‘Modeling Material Flows and Production Systems for Sustainable Resource Use in Intensified Crop Production in the North China Plain’ was initiated by the Deutsche Forschungs-Gemeinschaft (DFG) and the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE). The present doctoral thesis was embedded in the IRTG and focused, in particular, on exploring combinations of different crops produced on the same land at the same time, known as intercropping. In general, the higher productivity in intercropping, compared with monocropping, arises from the complementary use of resources (radiation, water, and nutrients) over space and time by crops that differ in physiology, morphology and phenology. The decisive question is how to optimize intercropping systems over space and time. To address this question, the present doctoral thesis combined field experiments with modeling approaches with the following aims: (i) to investigate the light availability on high temporal and spatial resolutions; (ii) to develop and validate a model that simulates the light availability for the smaller crop and accounts for the major aspects of cropping design; (iii) to determine the effect of the modified light availability on growth of maize and the smaller, shaded crop; (iv) to evaluate the plant growth model CROPGRO for its ability to simulate growth of the smaller, shaded crop; (v) to investigate the interactions between maize cultivar, cropping design and local growth conditions; and, (vi) to identify promising cropping designs and detect future research needs to increase the productivity of strip-intercropping systems. For this purpose, field experiments comprising of strip-intercropping with maize (Zea mays L.) and smaller vegetables, including bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. nana), were carried out over three growing seasons from 2010-2012 in southwestern Germany and in the North China Plain. Growing the crops in strips facilitates mechanized management, addressing the ongoing decrease of intercropping in China due to labor scarcity in rural areas. The crop combination of maize, a tall C4-crop with erectophile leaves, and bush bean, a small, N-fixating C3-crop with a more horizontal leaf orientation, was chosen due to the large potential for a complementary resource use. Special emphasis was given on the competition for light as it plays a major role in this cropping system due to the large height differences between the crops. In this context, measurements of the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) were conducted on high spatial (individual rows across the strip) and temporal resolutions (five-minute intervals) at the top of the bush bean canopy over a two-month co-growing period with maize. The collected data formed the basis of the simulation study towards investigating competition for light and its influence on plant growth with modeling approaches. Experimental results showed that maize yields increased in the border rows of the strip due to a higher lateral incoming radiation in years with a sufficient water supply. On average, maize yields calculated for strips consisting of 18 to four rows increased by 3 to 12% and 5 to 24% at the German and Chinese sites, respectively. Analysis of yield components revealed that yield increases in the border rows of the maize strip were mainly determined by a larger number of kernels per plant. On the other hand, shading by the taller adjacent maize induced considerable shade adaptations of bush bean, such as larger canopy dimensions and a substantially increased leaf area index due to thinner, larger leaves. These shade adaptations increased light interception, and indicated that bush bean could tolerate shading up to 30%, resulting in a total and pod dry matter similar to that of monocropped bush bean. These results suggested that there is a good potential for utilizing bush bean in strip-intercropping systems in combination with taller crops. However, higher shade levels (>40%) resulted in considerable decreases of total and pod dry matter. The high temporal and spatial resolution of the PAR measurements clearly revealed a highly heterogeneous diurnal distribution of PAR across the bush bean strip. The developed light model simulated this heterogeneity with a high accuracy under both clear and cloudy conditions. Comparison of simulated and observed hourly values of PAR across several rows within the strip of bush bean showed a root mean square error (RMSE) ranging between 47 and 87 μmol m-2 s-1 and a percent bias (PBIAS) ranging between -3.4 and 10.0%. Furthermore, the model reasonably captured the influence of different widths of the bush bean strip, strip orientations and maize canopy architecture (height, leaf area index, and leaf angle distributions). Simulations run for different latitudes and sky conditions, including different strips widths, maize canopy heights and leaf area indices (LAI), indicate that: (i) increasing the strip width might only reduce shading in the border rows of the smaller crop at lower latitudes under a high fraction of direct radiation; (ii) at higher latitudes, the selection of a maize cultivar with reduced height and LAI are suitable options to increase the light availability for the smaller crop. The present doctoral thesis presents the first approach to use the monocrop plant growth model CROPGRO to simulate growth of a legume crop grown in an intercropping system. The CROPGRO model was chosen because it provides an hourly simulation of leaf-level photosynthesis, and algorithms that account for the effects of radiation intensity on canopy dimensions and specific leaf area. CROPGRO, calibrated on data of monocropped bush bean, captured, quite well, the effects of the strongly reduced radiation on leaf area, and total and pod dry matter in the most shaded bush bean row. This indicated the models’ applicability on other intercropping systems exhibiting high levels of shading. Under a lower level of shading, cultivar and ecotype parameters had to be calibrated individually for a respective row within the bush bean strip to achieve a high accuracy of the simulations. Model simulations aided in explaining the effects arising from different shares of direct and diffuse radiation on canopy photosynthesis. This is a very important point to be further explored as diffuse radiation remains a part of light distribution and photosynthesis hardly studied in general; and, in particular, becomes more important with the increasing impact of shading. The simulation of the light availability, plant growth and yield formation within the strip of maize can be handled in a similar way as described for the smaller crop, bush bean. Modifications of the light model and a suitable plant growth model are presented and discussed. In conclusion, the main outcomes of this thesis indicate that the selection of cultivars adapted to the modified light environment have the largest potential to increase the productivity of strip-intercropped maize and bush bean. The most important characteristics of suitable maize cultivars include: (i) a high potential of kernel set; (ii) a higher water stress tolerance; and, (iii) reduced canopy height and LAI. The importance given to each of the components would subsequently be determined by the local weather and management conditions and the shade tolerance of the neighboring crop. On the other hand, to optimize yields of the smaller shaded crop, we present two options: (i) to modify the co-growing period of the intercrops temporarily to alleviate light competition during shade-sensitive growth stages; and, (ii) to modify the cropping design spatially and/or select different maize cultivars to reduce shading to the tolerated degree during the respective growth stage of the smaller crop. When the shade tolerance during the respective growth stages is determined, the light model developed can be used to optimize the cropping system temporarily and spatially. In this thesis, a promising approach, which combines a specific light partitioning model with process-oriented monocropping plant growth models, was developed. All models included in the approach can be applied at any location, and their generic nature also facilitates the integration of other crops. These attributes present a highly valuable contribution to intercropping research as their future optimization will depend strongly on the efficiency of the research efforts given: (i) the complexity of the underlying processes that determine the productivity; and, (ii) the minor share of time and money invested in intercropping research. Intercropping research has to prevent reinventing the wheel by identifying aspects in common with and already studied in monocropping systems and focus on aspects particularly inherent to intercropping systems.
Dissecting the genetic basis of root- and rhizosphere-related phosphorususe efficiency in European elite maize (Zea mays L.) lines and landraces
(2021) Li, Xuelian; Ludewig, Uwe
In agriculture, farmers massively apply P fertilizer to maintain high yield. Due to the long-term high fertilization rates and long-term organic residue accumulation, the total P pool per hectare has increased between 1900 and 2020. Since modern varieties have often been selected in high-nutrient input conditions for high yields, concerns are being raised that the beneficial traits for P uptake under a limited P supply will gradually decline in elite varieties. Regarding to maize (Zea mays L.), thousands of varieties have been bred since it was domesticated as a food product. It is an open question whether traits and genes related to P deficiency in European maize have changed since the Green Revolution, the start of hybrid breeding and high-intensity fertilization. This is the core research question of this dissertation. Here I present the analysis of roots in response to P deficiency using a diverse panel of European maize genotypes via several experiments. In Chapter I, we focus on whether maize seedlings of the flint and dent heterotic pools vary in the P acquisition and utilization since the onset of hybrid breeding using 34 genotypes in mini-rhizotrons. These genotypes included 16 flint lines that were released over more than five decades ago, 7 doubled haploid lines from the flint landraces (DH_LR), 8 dent lines, and 3 hybrids. Seedling P use efficiency (PUE) and related traits were measured and compared at two P levels in a calcareous soil. In Chapter II, we compared the root exudated organic acids and mycorrhizal fungi colonization degree among 24 genotypes which have been evaluated in Chapter I. These genotypes included 16 flint lines, 6 DH_LR and 2 old dent lines. Seedling colonization with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and organic acid anion release were measured. P-uptake-related root traits were compared under P-sufficient and P-deficient conditions. In Chapter III, using nearly isogenic maize lines, the B73 wild type and the rth3 root hairless mutant, we quantified the effect of root hairs and AMF infection in a calcareous soil under P deficiency. Wild-type root hairs extended the rhizosphere for acid phosphatase activity by 0.5 mm compared with the rth3 hairless mutant. Total root length of the wild type was longer than that of rth3 under P deficiency. Higher AMF colonization and mycorrhiza-induced phosphate transporter gene expression were identified in the mutant under P deficiency, but plant growth and P acquisition were similar between mutant and the wild type. The mycorrhizal dependency of maize was 33 % higher than the root hair dependency. Root hairs and AMF inoculation are two alternative ways to increase Pi acquisition under P deficiency, but these two strategies compete with each other. In Chapter IV again two nearly isogenic maize lines, the B73 wild type and the rth2 root hairless mutant, were used to address the importance of root hairs during drought and under P deficiency. The results indicate that drought and P deficiency synergistically impair maize growth; while P concentrations were little affected by the loss of root hairs, the P content was massively reduced at combined stress, showing that P deficiency is much more severe under drought. In Chapter V, we first compared the root traits response to low P and high P of six preselected genotypes in European flint in Chapter I. We then generated RNA libraries from the roots of these lines under both low P and high P. Using an expressed genes matrix, we conducted a Weighted Genomic Coexpression Network Analysis (WGCNA), and detected general low P-induced modules and modules that were higher in founder flints. The P deficiency-responsive metabolic processes common to all six genotypes included: (1) acceleration of carbon supply for organic acid synthesis through glycolysis and TCA cycle; (2) alteration of lipid metabolism; (3) changes of activity of transmembrane transporters; (4) carotenoid metabolism. Additionally, the founder flint line EP1, F2 and doubled haploid landrace SM1 have their specific strategies and mechanism to cope with low P. Our findings well support other studies with transcriptome, proteome and metabolome experiments in maize and other species, and point to molecular events involved in the efficient alleviation of P stress in efficient maize accessions. Altogether, this study presents informative analyses in how maize genotypes with distinct breeding history adapt to P deficiency in regard of root, rhizosphere traits and root transcription. It showed correlation between phenotypic traits and gene transcription, which is much more complex than previously reported. It also opened a novel insight into molecular regulation on Pi utilization, resulting in promotion of vegetative biomass in P deficiency. These findings will also provide precious knowledge for plant breeders and agronomists who work on P research in maize and other cereal crops.
Dissection of the genetic architecture of stalk mechanical strength and in vivo haploid induction in maize
(2016) Hu, Haixiao; Melchinger, Albrecht E.
Stalk lodging causes yield losses in maize cultivation ranging from 5 to 20% annually worldwide and stalk mechanical strength is widely accepted as an indirect indicator for its measurement. QTL mapping can reveal the genetic basis of stalk strength and provide information about markers suitable for marker-assisted selection (MAS). Constantly increasing market demands urge maize geneticists and breeders not only to enhance the field performance of new hybrids, but also to improve the breeding process. During the last decade, advances in the double haploid (DH) technology based on in vivo haploid induction (HI) shifted the breeding paradigm and greatly accelerated the breeding process in maize. Further spread of DH technology urgently demands a simple but efficient way for developing new inducers, which could be achieved by introducing the mandatory QTL/gene(s) of HI to advanced breeding lines. Therefore, the main goal of my thesis was to dissect the genetic architecture of stalk strength and detect the mandatory genomic region(s) of HI using genome-wide molecular markers. Several methods have been developed and applied in the literature to evaluate stalk mechanical strength, among which the rind penetrometer resistance (RPR) is a simple, rapid and non-destructive measurement during data collection, whereas stalk bending strength (SBS) is more closely associated with stalk lodging in the field. According to common knowledge in the mechanics of materials, SBS is reflected by the maximum load exerted to breaking (Fmax), the breaking moment (Mmax) and the critical stress (σmax). Thus, to have a complete understanding of the genetic architecture of stalk strength in maize, RPR and SBS (measured by Fmax, Mmax and σmax) were used to characterize stalk strength in our study. Utilizing a segregating population with 216 recombinant inbred lines, our analysis showed that stalk strength traits, RPR and SBS, have high heritability, ranging from 0.75 to 0.91. Nine QTL and one epistatic interaction between QTL were detected for RPR. Two, three and two QTL were detected for Fmax, Mmax and σmax, respectively. All QTL showed minor effects and only one QTL on chromosome 10 had overlapping support intervals between RPR and SBS. Co-locations of QTL and high positive correlations between stalk strength traits and other stalk traits suggested presence of pleiotropism and a complex genetic architecture of stalk strength. Owing to lack of major QTL, MAS solely based on molecular markers was found to be less effective than classical phenotypic selection for stalk strength. However, for SBS we observed considerably higher proportions of genetic variance explained by a genomic selection approach than obtained in QTL mapping with cross validation. Therefore, genomic selection might be a promising tool to improve the efficiency of breeding for stalk strength. All QTL mapping studies conducted hitherto for unraveling the genetic architecture of HI rate detected a major QTL, termed qhir1, in bin 1.04. Dong et al. (2013) further narrowed down this QTL to a 243 kb region. Considering the complex genetic architecture of HI and genetic background noise possibly affecting fine mapping of qhir1, we attempted to validate these results with an alternative approach before embarking on map-based gene isolation. Utilizing 51 maize haploid inducers and 1,482 non-inducers collected worldwide, we were able to investigate the genetic diversity between inducers and non-inducers and detect genomic regions mandatory for HI. The genetic diversity analyses indicated that the inducer group was clearly separated from other germplasm groups and had high familial relatedness. Analyzing our data by a case-control association approach failed because the segregation of HI was heavily confounded with population structure. Moreover, selective sweep approaches commonly used in the literature that are designed for capturing selective sweeps in a long-term evolutionary context failed due to high familial relatedness among inducers. To solve this problem, we developed a novel genome scan approach to detect fixed segments among inducers. With this approach, we detected a segment, termed qhir12, 4.0 Mb in length, within the support interval of the qhir1. This segment was the longest genomic segment detected by our novel approach and was entirely absent in all non-inducers analyzed. However, qhir12 has no overlap with the fine mapping region of Dong et al. (2013), termed qhir11. This indicates that the genomic region harboring the mandatory gene of HI should be confirmed by further experiments to corroborate its existence and identify its location in the maize genome.
Drought-induced processes in the rhizosphere of maize (Zea mays L.)
(2023) Käsbauer, Lena; Zörb, Christian
Drought events are increasing due to climate change, resulting in significant yield losses. Many breeding strategies focus on drought resistance to avoid these yield losses or complete crop failure. Additionally, to improve drought resistance under soil desiccation, the soil and particularly rhizosphere processes are more and more in the focus of research. Specifically, linkages between the diverse and highly dynamic interactions of soil, plant, and microorganism community must be understood. This thesis thus aims to answer the following research questions: i) Are root hairs relevant for water uptake, and what role do they play under drought? ii) Does local drought in Zea mays result in distinguishable systemic and local metabolic and physiological responses, as well as compensatory water uptake? iii) Do the physico-chemical properties of Zea mays mucilage differ between two common collection systems? In the first part, published studies considering root hairs in nutrient and water uptake were summarized, and show a high plasticity of root hairs under different nutrient and water availability states. This plasticity was apparent through changes in root hair morphology and development. Furthermore, the role of root hairs in water uptake is under discussion due to variable results from different studies and crop species. Nevertheless, it seems that overall root hairs improve drought resilience. Furthermore, a better nutrient uptake and mucilage exudation by root hairs and thus an increased drought stability is discussed. This suggests a beneficial role of root hairs for drought stress robustness. In the second part, local and systemic drought responses of maize and their effect on rhizosphere processes were assessed in a split-root experiment. The root system of maize was separated into two differently watered (watered, drought stressed) rhizobox chambers. The local drought treatment was performed for 10 days. Under these conditions, the local drought led to a local and systemic response through osmotic adjustment. Osmolarity increased in the shoot, while increased proline concentrations and slight changes in root exudates indicated a local response in the drought stressed root compartment. This metabolic adjustment contributed to a hydraulic redistribution of water between the root halves and enhanced water availability. Comparing the physico-chemical properties of maize mucilage collected by two common collection systems emphasized the impact of mucilage collection when interpreting the role of mucilage in rhizosphere processes. The mucilage differed in terms of physico-chemical properties, which included contact angle, viscosity, surface tension (physical) and nutrient content, pH, polysaccharide polymer length, and neutral sugar composition (chemical). The mucilage was collected in two ways: 1) from primary and seminal roots of seedlings growing in a semi-sterile aeroponic system and 2) from airborne brace roots of maize growing on sandy soil. The two collection systems differed in terms of plant age, environment (sterility, light availability, air humidity), and root type. The higher viscosity of the brace root mucilage may have reflected the drier air humidity surrounding the root and therefore the need to enhance water holding capacity. Non-sterile conditions during brace root mucilage collection probably resulted in higher shares of hexoses, while semi-sterile conditions may explain the lack of mannose in the aeroponic mucilage. Brace root mucilage may therefore have a greater relevance during soil desiccation than aeroponic mucilage. In summary, this work helps to fill knowledge gaps in understanding and linking rhizosphere processes by i) providing a state-of-the-art summary of root hair plasticity related to nutrient and water availability and concluding a beneficial role of root hairs in drought robustness, ii) showing local and systemic osmotic adjustment and hydraulic redistribution under local drought, and iii) emphasizing the role of the mucilage collection systems when interpreting the role of mucilage in rhizosphere processes
Effects of weeds on yield and determination of economic thresholds for site-specific weed control using sensor technology
(2014) Keller, Martina; Gerhards, Roland
Weeds can cause high yield losses. Knowledge about the weeds occurring, their distribution within fields and their effects on the crop yield is important to achieve effective weed control. The critical period for weed control (CPWC) and the economic threshold (ET) are important key concepts and management tools in weed control. While the former helps to time weed control in crops of low competitiveness, the latter provides a decision aid to determine whether weed control is necessary. This decision is generally taken at the field level. Weeds have been found to be distributed heterogeneously within fields. Site-specific weed control (SSWC) addresses this sub-field variation by determining weed distribution as input, by taking control decisions in the decision component and by providing control measures as output at high spatial resolution. Sensor systems for automated weed recognition were identified as prerequisite for SSWC since costs for scouting are too high. While experiences with SSWC using sensor data as input are still scarce, studies showed that considerable herbicide savings could be achieved with SSWC. ETs can serve as thresholds for the decision component in SSWC systems. However, the commonly used ETs were suggested decades ago and have not been updated to changing conditions since. The same is the case for the CPWC in maize in Germany. In addition, the approaches to determine the CPWC are usually not based on economic considerations, which are highly relevant to farmers. Thus, the objectives of this thesis are: 1. To test different models and to provide a straightforward approach to integrate economical aspects in the concept of the CPWC for two weed control strategies: Herbicide based (Germany) and hoeing based (Benin); 2. To determine the effect of weeds on yield and to calculate ETs under current conditions which can be used for SSWC; 3. To evaluate the use of bi-spectral cameras and shape-based classification algorithms for weed detection in SSWC; and 4. To determine changes in weed frequencies, herbicide use and yield over the last 20 years in southwestern Germany. Datasets in maize from Germany and Benin served as input for the CPWC analyses. The log-logistic model was found to provide a similar fit as the commonly used models but its parameters are biologically meaningful. For Germany, analyses using a full cost model revealed that farmers should aim at applying herbicides early before the 4-leaf stage of maize. In Benin, where weed control is mainly done by hoeing, analyses showed that one well- timed weeding operation around the 10-leaf stage could already be cost-effective. A second weeding operation at a later stage would assure profit. The precision experimental design (PED) was employed to determine the effect of weeds, soil properties and herbicides on crop yield in three winter wheat trials. In this design, large field trials’ geodata of weed distribution, herbicide application, soil properties and yield are used to model the effects of the former three on yield. Galium aparine, other broadleaved weeds and Alopecurus myosuroides reduced yield by 17.5, 1.2 and 12.4 kg ha-1 plant-1 m2 determined by weed counts. The determined thresholds for SSWC with independently applied herbicides were 4, 48 and 12 plants m-2, respectively. Bi-spectral camera based weed–yield estimates were difficult to interpret showing that this technology still needs to be improved. However, large weed patches were correctly identified. ETs derived of field trials’ data carried out at several sites over 13 years in the framework of the ’Gemeinschaftsversuche Baden-Württemberg’ were 9.2-9.8 and 4.5-8.9 % absolute weed coverage for winter wheat and winter barley and 3.7% to 5.5% relative weed coverage for maize. Overall, the weed frequencies in winter cereals were found to be more stable than the weed frequencies in maize during the observation period. In maize, a frequency increase of thermophilic species was found. Trends of considerable yield increases of 0.16, 0.08 and 0.2 t ha-1 for winter wheat, winter barely and maize, respectively, were estimated if weeds were successfully controlled. In order to evaluate the use of bi-spectral cameras and shapebased classification algorithms for weed detection in SSWC, herbicides were applied site-specifically using weed densities determined by bi-spectral camera technology in a winter wheat and maize field. Threshold values were employed for decision taking. Using this approach herbicide savings between 58 and 83 % could be achieved. Such reductions in herbicide use would meet the demand of society to minimize the release of plant protection products in the environment. Misclassification occurred if weeds overlapped with crop plants and crop leaf tips were frequently misclassified as grass weeds. Improvements in equipment, especially between the interfaces of camera, classification algorithms, decision component and sprayer are advisable for further trials. In conclusion, the derived ETs can be easily implemented in a straightforward SSWC system or can serve as decision aid for farmers in winter wheat and winter barley. Further model testing and adjusting would be necessary. For maize, the use of ETs at the field level is not suggested by this study, however the need for early weed control is clearly demonstrated. Bi-spectral camera technology combined with classification algorithms to detect weeds is promising for research use and for SSWC, but still requires some technical improvements.
Environmental effects on physical properties of Geohumus and effects of its application on drought responses in maize
(2013) Duong, Van Nha; Asch, Folkard
Geohumus belongs to a new generation of soil melioration/hydrophilic polymers; however, evidence is limited with regard to both, the ability of Geohumus to store water in variable abiotic environments and the effects of Geohumus or other hydrophilic polymers on plant genotypes in response to drought condition. Therefore, this study aims at providing necessary and complementary information for improving Geohumus usage under field condition, and to improve our ecophysiological understanding of the interactions between Geohumus, plant genotype and the growing environment. Three series of experiments were conducted to investigate (1) how abiotic factors affect the water holding capacity and restorability of Geohumus, (2) how the application of Geohumus affects plant morphological and physiological traits in response to different irrigation scenarios such as full irrigation, water deficit, and re-watering and (3) how the application of Geohumus in different soil types affects drought induced plant root-shoot communication. Water holding capacity (WHC) and restorability of Geohumus in mL water g-1 was determined by immersing teabags with fresh and used Geohumus in prepared media under laboratory conditions. A greenhouse experiment was carried out in order to analyze morphological and physiological responses of the two maize cultivars Mikado and Companero to progressive drought or full irrigation (field capacity) as affected by Geohumus. To obtain in depth information on Geohumus-plant interactions, a split root system experiment was conducted as a tool to investigate hydraulic and bio-chemical root-shoot communication of Mikado and Companero under full irrigation, partial rootzone drying, and deficit irrigation. Our results showed a negative correlation between salt concentration and water holding capacity (WHC) of Geohumus due to replacement of water molecules by ions at the polarized sites within the polymer chain (James and Richards 1986). Furthermore, salt types affected the WHC of Geohumus differently; in particular, multivalent ions were stronger impeding Geohumus compared to monovalent ions. Consequently, Geohumus application to sandy soil with base fertilizer application or to compost could not improve soil water content. However, split fertilizer application to sandy soil containing Geohumus led to a significantly improved soil moisture content indicating that timing and amount of fertilizer should be carefully considered under Geohumus application. Furthermore, for field applications the effect of climate needs to be considered, since the WHC of Geohumus increased with increasing temperature. The preferential ion uptake of Geohumus could translate into competition with plant roots for nutrient uptake from soil solution. On the other hand, Geohumus can capture nutrients which might have been lost for plants due to drainage. We found indications of these positive effects since biomass and leaf area of Mikado and Companero maize genotypes were increased compared to soils without Geohumus. Theoretically, polymers could release stored water to plants under drought stress; which in turn could inhibit or delay chemical signaling. However, our results showed increased concentrations of [ABA]leaf and [ABA]xylem of both Mikado and Companero grown in sandy soil with Geohumus in response to drought compared to treatments without Geohumus. This hormonal response was associated with larger leaf area and greater biomass resulting in a higher plant water demand due to its increased transpiration area while Geohumus did not improve soil water content significantly. On the other, hand root/shoot ratio, absolute root length and root biomass were decreased in plants grown with Geohumus. This suggests that plants grown with Geohumus under drought conditions could not extract water from deeper soil layers. The split root experiments showed that the larger leaf area of plants grown with Geohumus in combination with limited moisture content of sandy soil resulted in a stronger chemical root-shoot signal related to water stress. Regardless the increased [ABA]xylem which is associated with a reduction of stomatal conductance, Geohumus application could result in a decreased leaf water potential under partial root zone drying. Mikado grown with and without Geohumus, as a genotype potentially adapted to drought conditions, was able (1) to maintain its water potential under water limited conditions by penetrating roots into deeper soil layers (2) to delay the expression of physiological traits associated with drought, and (3) to maintain its shoot weight in contrast to Companero, a drought sensitive cultivar. The presented results are of relevance for the improvement of our understanding of the impact of abiotic factors such as temperature, salt concentration, and salt types on the WHC of Geohumus and therefore will help to optimize the application of hydro-gels under field conditions. Beneficial traits of plant genotypes grown under Geohumus application were identified, which will be valuable for breeding and applied programs targeting at crop improvement in arid and sub-arid regions and areas vulnerable to climate change.
Evaluation and improvement of N fertilization strategies in the wheat/maize double-cropping system of the North China Plain
(2015) Hartmann, Tobias Edward; Müller, Torsten
The North China Plain (NCP) is the main production area of cereal crops in China. The intensification of agricultural systems and the increased use of chemical N fertilizers are contributing to environmental pollution. One of the objectives of this thesis was to apply an Nmin based approach for the calculation of N application rates to a previously over-fertilized farmers field of the NCP and to evaluate the potential of reducing N inputs while maintaining the grain yield of a summer-maize/winter-wheat double-cropping system; and to evaluate fertilizer strategies, aiming to reduce N inputs and loss. Using an Nmin based approach for the calculation of fertilizer application rates, a reduction of fertilizer input by up to 50% compared to farmers practice (550 kg N ha-1 a-1) is possible without negatively affecting the grain yield of a wheat / maize double cropping system. The extreme re-supply of N during the summer-vegetation periods of maize in the first two experimental seasons resulted in high yields of the control treatment (CK: 2009: 5.7 and 2010: 5.9 Mg ha-1), which did not significantly differ from the fertilized treatments. This resulted in a reduced recovery efficiency of N (REN: 0.09 kg kg-1 – 0.30 kg kg-1). According to the results of this field experiment there was no agronomic justification for the application of fertilizer N. The grain yield of maize of the control treatment finally decreased in the third vegetation period of summer-maize. While maintaining the yield level, the optimized application of N increased REN (0.37 – 0.58 kg kg-1) significantly compared to farmers practice (0.21 kg kg-1) in this final vegetation period of maize. Wheat, in contrast to maize, is dependent on the application of fertilizer N for yield formation. In both vegetation periods of wheat, REN of the reduced treatments (0.34 – 1.0 kg kg-1) was significantly higher compared to FP (0.26 and 0.27 kg kg-1). The highest cumulated (5 vegetation periods) agronomic efficiency of N, as well as cumulated grain yield of the wheat/maize double-cropping system was observed when ammoniumsulphate-nitrate was applied in combination with the nitrification inhibitor 3,4-dimethylpyrazolephosphate (ASNDMPP: AEN: 19 kg kg-1, yield: 35 Mg ha-1) and according to crop N demand and residual soil mineral N. The highest REN was observed when urea ammonium nitrate was applied in a shallow, banded depot (UANDEP: 40 kg kg-1). The results of this field experiment further show that the N surplus (fertilized N - grain N) as well as the N balance (N Input - N output) after harvest are significantly lower when an optimized approach to fertilizer application is followed. The over-application of N for an optimized application of urea or ASNDMPP (Surplus: -25kg to 98 kg N ha-1; Balance: -36 to 102 kg N ha-1) was significantly reduced compared to current farmers practice (Surplus: 156kg to 187 kg N ha-1; Balance: 56 to 262 kg N ha-1). This leads to lower residual N in the soil horizon from 0 - 90 cm in the reduced treatments (113 kg N ha-1 at end of experiment) compared to FP (293 kg N ha-1). The results of this experiment indicate that N contained in the residues of maize is available only to the subsequent summer-crop and may sufficiently supply N for the yield formation of maize. Should the over-application of N be effectively reduced in the cropping systems of the NCP it is therefore necessary to take the N mineralization potential of soils into account. Based on the results of this field experiment and others, a crop-soil interface model (HERMES) was calibrated and validated to the conditions of the NCP. Finally, this research observed the effect of wheat straw and the urease inhibitor (UI) N-(n-buthyl) thiophosphoric triamide (nBPT) on the turnover of urea, as well as the loss of ammonia and nitrous oxide from an alkaline soil of the NCP. UI inhibit or reduce the appearance of ammonia after the application of urea and almost completely prevent the loss of N as ammonia (urea: 12 – 14% loss). nBPT effectively reduces the rate of urea hydrolysis but does not down-regulate the process enough to completely inhibit nitrification, thereby maintaining the availability of N from urea for plants. Further, the addition of wheat straw prolongs the appearance of ammonium after the application of urea while the appearance of nitrate is reduced. Wheat straw may therefore either act as a stimulant of hydrolysis or as an inhibitor of nitrification. The addition of urea increases soil respiration and the emission of N2O drastically, possibly acting as a C and N source for microbial organisms and causing a priming effect on microbial activity in soils. This effect was increased further when wheat straw as well as urea were added to soil. nBPT, in contrast, prevents a significant increase in CO2-respiration and N2O-emission. The urease inhibitor may therefore generally restrict microbial activity or shift nitrification/denitrification processes towards the emission of N2.
External nutrition stimuli induced proteome and phosphoproteome responses of maize root hairs and arabidopsis root microsomal fraction
(2021) Li, Zhi; Schulze, Waltraud
This work studied how the proteome from young maize root hair cells responds to different nutrition deprivation, and gives perspectives to the possible involvement of NRT1.1 and NRT2.1 in regulating root membrane phosphoproteome responses. This work also proposes a phospho-switch model that may explain how the NRT2.1 activity was regulated.