Institut für Sozialwissenschaften des Agrarbereichs

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Agricultural education in Honduras : return on investment, quality, and efficiency
(2020) Flores Rios, Maria Delfina; Knierim, Andrea
The Agri-food sector, like any other economic sector, requires competent workers and entrepreneurs able to maximize productivity and cope with the various challenges the sector is facing. Agricultural education prepares these actors to acquire knowledge, identify options that optimize their productivity, and adapt to changing environments. However, the importance of agricultural education is declining in education policies, and nowadays, it is no longer an attractive field of study for the youth. There is a need to re-invent agricultural careers to the new demands of the agri-food and labor market sectors. As there is a limited number of studies available that analyze agricultural education in Latin-American and other developing countries, this research provides new insights by examining the determinants for return to investment, quality, and efficiency of agricultural education, taking Honduras as a case study. The present dissertation encompasses three interrelated studies. The first study addresses the research question on how the educational attainment on agricultural education, years of experience, age, sex, geographical region of residence, and work sector, affect the graduates earnings. This study computes the return to agricultural education by educational level, using several econometric techniques, such as the instrumental variables, Heckman’s two-step procedure, and the multinomial logit to tackle endogeneity of education, sample selection bias, and selection bias for choosing this field of study, respectively. The results show that regardless of the economic activity in which the individuals work, graduates from agricultural educational programs receive positive returns on their investment in education. High school graduates from these programs, have higher earnings within the economic activity of agriculture than non-graduates. At the university level, the graduates competencies are better paid in economic activities outside agriculture than inside, for example, in fields of manufacturing, public administration, and education. The second study addresses the question of what competencies employers require from graduates of agricultural education programs. Interviews and workshops were conducted, addressing employers from agricultural value chains, purposely selected, and using maximum variation sampling. The results show that graduates perform at an intermediate level in technical competencies. Of the 20 competencies identified, graduates perform poorly in at least six areas of competence, which requires immediate action. Although the analysis of academic curricula shows that the competencies included are relevant for employers to cope with the challenges faced by the agri-food sector, there is room for improvement. Finally, the third study addressed the question about the level of efficiency of the public institutions delivering agricultural educational programs, and the factors influencing it. This study computes the efficiency using the non-parametric approach data envelopment analysis (DEA). The model used is output-oriented, variable return to scale, and two-stage where controllable and non-controllable inputs are included in the first and second stages, respectively. This study follows a double bootstrapping procedure to avoid the caveats of the conventional DEA analysis. The evidence showed that none of the agriculture education centers in the sample is considered a full efficient entity. However, there is a potential to improve the usage of the current resources. It is possible by expanding the outcomes in a range of 1% to 50% without changing the existing resources. In summary, the findings of this dissertation provide compelling evidence that each additional level of agricultural education in Honduras is a worthwhile investment, and that graduates from both education levels, secondary and tertiary levels, are necessary to support Honduras economy. Nevertheless, improvements should be made in terms of the quality and the resources used in the provision of agricultural education. Based on the research findings, it is recommended to revise the academic curricula, with the aim of better matching education and labor market requirements. Secondly, a closer analysis of the implementation of the educational processes is necessary in order to enhance the competencies requested and identify better management of the resources available. Finally, setting formal collaboration mechanisms between the education centers, authorities, and the private sector could strongly improve agricultural education systems’ contribution to the performance of the sector. To further refine this research, it would be beneficial to increase the sample sizes to expand further the techniques used.
Capacity development of tribal forest dwellers through Participatory Forest Management in Bangladesh
(2018) Kabir, Khondokar Humayun; Knierim, Andrea
This thesis examines the Participatory Forest Management (PFM) approach in the micro-scale context of the Madhupur Sal forest in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, PFM has been the main policy instrument for managing natural forest areas in the last two decades. The present national forest policy in Bangladesh emphasizes the importance of the participation of different actors, especially forest dwellers, in forest management programs. The overall aim of PFM is to capacitate and to improve the livelihood conditions of forest dwellers through different forestry extension programs. Since its outset, many PFM programs have been conducted within the context of Madhupur Sal forest. Scientific studies have examined PFM contexts using a wide range of indicators, focusing on outcomes such as change in forest coverage, change in income level, poverty reduction and livelihood improvement to evaluate the impact of a PFM program. Few studies have also focused on institutional analysis and looked at formal and informal institutions and their role in natural resource management. According to scientific evidence, the impacts of PFM programs on livelihood and forest improvement remain contested. Despite the execution of different PFM programs over the last two decades in Madhupur Sal forest, the forest area reduced dramatically, the livelihood of forest dwellers became more vulnerable and forest dwellers engaged in conflicts with officials of the forest department (FD) concerning their rights. In the past, most studies considered that problem from the narrow perspective of a lack of ‘knowledge or empowerment’ of forest dwellers without systemic consideration of forest development agencies, and the roles of other actors in PFM. To date, there is still limited research which considers the capacity issue at the individual, organizational, and ‘enabling environment’ level. An improved understanding of the role of people’s capacity level is, however, vital to guide future PFM programs. Therefore, this study considers the PFM context from a holistic perspective that focuses not on forest dwellers but other actors within this system. Thus, the objectives of this study are: (1) to determine the changes in capacity level of participants in PFM programs and to explore the factors that influence changes in capacity level of forest dwellers, (2) to assess the role and performance of the pluralistic forest advisory systems, and (3) to explore the potential of a rights-based approach to create an enabling environment for collaborative action and cooperative conflict management. This thesis is composed of five chapters. The introductory chapter provides background information, the problem statement, the main research objectives, information about the study area and population, the theoretical embedding, and presents the outline of the thesis. The thesis combines qualitative and quantitative methods for collecting and analyzing data to deal with the three interrelated research objectives. The work on the first objective is based on a mixed methods approach (face-to-face survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and participatory observation). The second objective is pursued using qualitative methods (stakeholder analysis, semi-structured interviews, participatory workshops) while the third objective is followed employing a case study approach. In Chapter 2, a modified analytical framework is used to explore the assertion that capacity is the outcome of a process-oriented approach like PFM. This revised framework combines different components of social learning platforms with essential components derived from a capacity development framework developed by the Tropical Agriculture Platform (TAP). Key capacities include the capacity to navigate complexity, capacity to collaborate, capacity to learn and reflect, and capacity to engage in political and strategical processes. Changes in the capacity level of forest dwellers were investigated with regard to the PFM initiative ‘Re-vegetation of Madhupur Forests” (RMF). The findings show that this PFM approach has brought desired changes in different dimensions of capacity development, i.e., capacity to collaborate, capacity to learn and reflect, and capacity to engage in strategic and political processes. The initiative did not bring changes to the capacity to navigate complexity. Furthermore, the long-run engagement and a range of participatory activities with different development organizations increased the understanding of participants and kept them up-to-date about their rights in forest management. The results also reveal that the FD worked through existing social capital within the community and took initiatives like several group discussions and meetings with the tribal community and their leaders before the RMF program. This initiative resulted in a common consensus of the tribal forest dwellers and reduced conflicts between FD and tribal forest dwellers. Findings regarding factors that influence changes in the capacity level of forest dwellers reveal that extension services, credit support, trust within society, information and communication influence the level of capacities to adapt and respond to changes among the tribal forest dwellers. Chapter 3 presents the role and performance of a pluralistic forest advisory system, considering the influence and importance of advisory service providers for managing natural resources, their organizational characteristics, and their service quality. A stakeholder analysis was conducted to identify advisory organizations along with the dynamics of power relations with forest dwellers. A ‘best-fit’ framework was used to explore the characteristics and service quality of the existing organizations. The findings reveal that a range of organizations including public, private, and social organizations was working with tribal forest dwellers and followed the common objective of improving forest management and the livelihoods of the local forest dwellers. Also, a number of organizations involved in the provision of advisory services were still struggling with lack of capacities such as a limited number of advisors, lack of training facilities for the advisors and a lack of need-based technological contents. The findings further reveal that the FD had limited linkages and partnerships with other actors at the local level, despite being a central coordinating and executing agency for furthering forest policies and programs. At the same time, analysis of the organizational pluralism highlights that some NGOs worked for the livelihood improvement of forest dwellers by providing a range of technologies and information. Here, social organizations collaborated closely with forest dwellers and provided necessary information about the rights of forest dwellers. The overall assessment suggests that public sector organizations should take more proactive roles in integrating the important services of NGOs and other social organizations with forest dwellers within the pluralistic system. The study on exploring the potential of the rights-based approach to creating an enabling environment (chapter 4) reveal that neglecting rights of the forest dwellers before the initiation of RMF program led to ineffective policies and programs and subsequently to long-running conflicts. Different development programs implemented by the FD without any prior concern of tribal forest dwellers’ rights and interests, such as social forestry, eco-park and rubber garden establishment, became subject to conflicts. Results further revealed that several tribal forest dwellers died due to the clashes with the police when they steered the action of social movements for the sake of their rights. Tribal forest dwellers experienced top-down, non-cooperative, and even aggressive interventions from the FD which brought uncertainties into their daily lives. In contrast, participants of the RMF program reported that the FD initiated several meetings with tribal people and their leaders to know about their needs and expectations and engaged them in RMF program by offering several promises. During the execution of the RMF program, the FD contributed to welfare provisions like financial support, jobs, training, social forestry plots, healthcare cards, and similar offers. The results also reveal that the FD acknowledged different non-material issues like mutual respects, mobility in the forest, freedom to make decisions as a community forest worker, individual and social security, harassment-free life, access to information and regular communication between FD’s and forest dwellers. Based on the above findings, this study provides some recommendations for the future design and implementation of PFM in Bangladesh which are: (i) the government should integrate the rights-based approach in the policy development since this can transform long-run disputes into collaborative action; (ii) more attention needs to be paid by the FD for the establishment of coordinated advisory services with other advisory service providers; (iii) the importance and influence of social organizations to mobilize the tribal forest dwellers towards cooperation and action should not be overlooked by the FD; (iv) any participatory forest management intervention in the future should be designed in such a way that it implies changes in the capacity level of the forest-dependent people, (v) the FD should integrate other public sector organizations in the provision of advisory services for forest management, because they are providing a range of technologies and information and working closely with forest dwellers, and (vi) the Government should move away from ‘one-size-fits-all’ thinking to a ‘best fit’ thinking.
Exploring the governance of traditional water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province, Northern Iran
(2019) Mirzaei, Arezoo; Knierim, Andrea
This study explores the governance of water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province, Northern Iran, from the perspective of public and private sectors at the regional level, as well as local stakeholders within the communities. Although water management in Iran has been frequently investigated, research which specifically addresses the governance of water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province from perspective of various stakeholders is not existent. The traditional water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province called Ab-bandan are used to collect the precipitation during autumn and winter seasons to be used for irrigating rice fields during the growing seasons (spring and summer). In spite of these reservoirs, a significant amount of precipitation runs off into the sea through rivers and only less than 10% of precipitation is being stored in Ab-bandans. This is due to the challenges in governing these water reservoirs such as lack of strategic planning of administrative bodies. This draws attention to the poor governance of water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province, which presents a major challenge to ensure the security of water supply, and in particular for rice production. Thus, the objectives of this study are: 1) to identify gaps in the governance of Ab-bandans, 2) to identify and assess the policy instruments for the improvement of the governance of Ab-bandans, and 3) to investigate the influence of social capital components on the governance of Ab-bandans among local stakeholders. These objectives form the papers of this cumulative Ph.D. dissertation. The first paper reveals water governance gaps with the focus on Ab-bandans using the ‘OECDs Multi-level Governance Framework’ as a conceptual basis. This framework is a guideline for policy-makers in all countries in order to distinguish public governance gaps regardless of the institutional setting. Identifying the gaps could provide an input for policy-makers in order to prioritize options to strengthen the governance of Ab-bandans. A modified Delphi technique was used to identify these gaps by face-to-face interviews and ranking round. Interviews were conducted with individuals working in public agencies and the private sector pertaining to water management. The results show that the lack of a specific law for Ab-bandans is perceived as the most acute gap. However, the significant issue is that there is interdependence among all the gaps and they can strengthen one another. Therefore, a holistic perspective is needed to understand and resolve the gaps in the governance of Ab-bandans. There is no magic or ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to overcome the gaps and a mix of solutions is required. The second paper refers to identify relevant water policy instruments and assessing the suitability of these multiple instruments in an integrated way towards good governance of Ab-bandans. Water policy instruments are tools, strategies, and mechanisms for policy-makers to overcome governance obstacles in water policy; for instance, involving sub-national governments in designing water policy beyond their roles as implementers is a policy instrument to foster effective water management. An exploratory sequential design was realized as a mixed methods approach (qualitative and quantitative) for the purpose of research. The results reveal that policy instruments identified properly contribute to the improvement of the governance of Ab-bandans. Participation and collective action among farmers have the highest priority for the improvement of water governance. Therefore, it can be seen as the starting point for the desired transformation. Moreover, the policy instruments are interdependent and shouldn’t be addressed in isolation. The improvement of the governance of Ab-bandans should be systematic and it is not possible to apply a single policy instrument without considering the impact of other policy instruments. It is necessary to adopt the policy instruments in a holistic way to solve difficulties in the governance of Ab-bandans. The third paper explores aspects of social capital in the governance of Ab-bandans seeking explanations as to how and why components of social capital among various local stakeholders influence the water reservoirs-related interactions within the communities. Social capital is an important factor, which facilitates collective interaction of the local community’ members for water system sustainability. Therefore, this study investigates key social capital components (i.e. trust, co-operation, social network cohesion, leaders and their roles, and conflict resolution) affecting the governance of Ab-bandans among local stakeholders. The qualitative method was applied to achieve the purpose of research. Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted with a range of local key stakeholders of Ab-bandans. The study shows that the level of social capital and its importance can differ depending on which component is under investigation. According to the results, mechanisms for conflict resolution are the most important aspect of social capital which plays a significant role for the other components. Social relationships and cohesion are being reduced due to the conflicts in water management and lack of appropriate mechanisms for resolution. Therefore, resolution of conflicts can bring people together in the group events to communicate and address their common issues and promote their co-operation for collective decision-making and planning. The results of the study support the idea that the management of Ab-bandans in a collective manner at the local level in the Mazandaran province needs to take all components of social capital into consideration. This would enable local communities to be more resilient in the face of collective action problems. Overall, it can be concluded that managing water reservoirs in the Mazandaran province, Northern Iran requires collaborative efforts between various stakeholders within and between the local communities. The government should undertake the role of facilitator rather than governmentality, by using participatory and bottom-up processes for decision-making, planning, and resolving conflicts among local stakeholders. The government should establish effective strategies of governance to engage farmers in management decisions and empower and integrate them to be able to solve their problems in water-related issues. There is also an urgent need for co-operation and participation not only between local stakeholders and responsive public agencies at the regional level, but also among public agencies in charge of water policy design and implementation. As the government is the owner and manager of water resources, better management and utilization of Ab-bandans will only succeed if accompanied by a shift in public governance through the engagement of all relevant actors.
Measurement of sustainability at farm-level : stakeholders perceptions and indicators of the social dimension
(2020) Herrera Sabillon, Beatriz Soledad; Knierim, Andrea
While there is a consensus between researchers, decision makers and consumers that an operationalization of the concept of sustainability is necessary, there exist huge disagreements on how to transform the multidimensional concept of sustainability into usable metrics. Due to the multiple actors involved, diverse objectives and complex interactions, the selection of metrics to be monitored is expected to be science-based, but also relevant to the main concerns of the stakeholders. This dissertation address these gaps investigating stakeholders’ arguments about the suitability of a set of sustainability indicators in an accountancy agricultural information system for policy evaluation. The research is framed in the FP7 EU-Project Farm Level Indicators for New Topics in Policy Evaluation (FLINT). The thesis pursues two objectives: i)to elicit stakeholders’ perceptions about the adoption of sustainability indicators into an established farm accountancy data system and ii)to contribute to assess the usefulness of collecting indicators of social sustainability at farm-level. The first objective is reached by exploring the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) stakeholders’ perceptions on feasibility and usefulness of a set of sustainability indicators. Using discussion groups and semi-structured interviews in nine European countries, we collected arguments about the measurement of sustainability at farm level. Participant stakeholders identified that the request of sustainability information of the farm is already taking place under simultaneous, embedded and sometimes overlapping requirements from regulations, markets or research agents. We found that stakeholders have diverging perceptions toward the value of that information, especially for those indicators not expected to be used for farm-level decision making. For the second objective, two empirical studies were conducted using an integrated data set of FADN and FLINT project in a sample of 1100 FADN farms distributed in nine countries. In the first study we explored the linkage between the use of advisory services by farm managers and the economic, environmental and social performance of farms. We identified three clusters of farms that have a different sustainability performance and that relate differently to advisory services. In the three groups of farms, the number of contacts with advisory services is positively correlated with the adoption of innovations, the number of information sources and the adoption of farm risk management measures. We failed to find linear relationship between advisory services and environmental and social sustainability. The second study investigated the influence of farm-level factors in farmers’ satisfaction with farming and its relationship with the level of satisfaction they have with their overall quality of life. We propose a path model using a Structural Equation Model-Partial Least Squares approach, testing the validity and reliability of a farmers’ work satisfaction construct and determining on how far the farm variables are related with it. Results suggest that while it is valid and reliable to measure work satisfaction as a construct, the farm level data that is currently available explains farmers’ satisfaction with their own standard and values only partially. Therefore a metric that measures those values should be further developed and tested. This doctoral dissertation contributes to the identification and prioritization of standardized indicators of farm-level sustainability. Two main learnings can be implied from the findings. The first one is that ontological differences between the agents that are involved in the functioning and evolvement of an information system can be identified (but not solved) applying inter and transdisciplinary research methods. The second one is that standardized indicators of social sustainability are desirable, feasible and useful to be collected and integrated in the same data sets with economic and environmental indicators. That said, due to the complexity of the relationship between sustainability dimensions, the value of standardization of indicators is limited by how are they going to be used.
Privatization of agricultural advisory services and innovation systems : the case of Brandenburg, Germany
(2021) Knuth, Ulrike; Knierim, Andrea
The European regulations on Rural Development of the last two decades brought Agricultural Advisory Systems back onto the political agenda. Along with the introduction of Cross Compliance (CC), Member states were obliged to review their Farm Advisory System or to build up new infrastructure. The importance of innovation generation, knowledge dissemination and on-going learning in rural areas has been emphasized, and Agricultural Advisory Systems are regarded one important partner. A further development over the last 30 years has been a wave of privatization of Agricultural Advisory Systems (AAS) in Europe due to the pressure of decreasing public budgets. This cumulative dissertation examines the dialectic of increased and changing demands on Farm Advisory Systems on the one hand and the effects of privatization on the other hand. Privatization of agricultural advisory services in European Member States has been a process for decades. Both within Europe and Germany, the German federal state of Brandenburg has an Agricultural Advisory System with a comparatively high level of privatization and commercialization. It was therefore selected as an excellent case to address the development and the impacts of privatization. The goal of this dissertation is to answer the following leading research questions i) What were the consequences of privatization specifically for the situation of advisors, their capacities and competences?, ii) What are the responsibilities of public authorities to steer a (privatized) advisory system and innovation networks within pluralistic Agricultural Knowledge and Innovations Systems (AKIS)?, iii) How was the EU’s obligation to establish Farm Advisory Systems (FAS) implemented and thus, how is advice on Cross Compliance with Farm Management Systems (FMS) as a policy-induced innovation implemented and adopted in Brandenburg and Germany?, iv) How successful are innovation networks as an instrument to fill the interaction gap of the AAS in Brandenburg?. This dissertation contributes to the empirical evidence on the functioning of AKIS and Advisory Systems and provides public authorities in Brandenburg with longitudinal information to be used for future farm advice- and innovation-related policies. The cumulative thesis builds on 4 articles published from 2013 till 2018. The articles analyze qualitatively and discuss the view of agricultural advisors and farmers through a series of semi-structured interviews, analyze applied Farm Management Tools and assess new cooperation forms like innovation networks. Chapter 2 describes the development of the situation of private farm advisors in Brandenburg over a longer period of more than 15 years, from before until complete commercialization of the service in 2000. It shows which topics advisors (can) address and which they cannot, which clients they work with and which they do not, and it provides data on their basic work situation. It also gives insights on their networking activities. The following chapter 3 provides recommendations for public authorities regarding their responsibilities in pluralistic AKIS in Europe, which can also be applied to Brandenburg. Chapter 4 provides an analysis of Cross Compliance advice to farmers with Farm Management Systems (FMS) as one public responsibility in AKIS. A special focus is pointed to farmers’ usage of FMS in Brandenburg and qualitative comparison of FMS in Germany. In chapter 5 the cooperation of various actors from science and practice in Brandenburg is examined using the example of the innovation network for climate change adaptation. Innovation networks can be considered as one important instrument to cope with the challenges of AKIS privatization in Brandenburg by filling the interaction gap. This chapter presents an analysis of collaboration success factors and shows how crucial repeated participation, appropriate information management, and inclusive as well as responsive network practices are. Chapter 6 discusses the results regarding the development of Brandenburg’s AKIS and its Agricultural Advisory System (AAS) during the period of complete privatization (2002 until 2017), in which the research of chapter 2 thru 5 was conducted. Chapter 7 gives an update of Brandenburg’s AKIS and advisory system development from 2017 on, when AKIS and advisory services returned on the political agenda, and new policies emerged, which support innovation networks and advisory services. Chapter 8 concludes policy and research recommendations.
Public agriculture extension and information and communication technologies : a case study in South Wollo, Ethiopia
(2020) Birke, Fanos Mekonnen; Knierim, Andrea
Effective agriculture extension services require a continuous transformation and introduction of new and effective interventions, approaches, methods, and tools. Information Communication Technologies (ICT) are given immense expectations to address some of the challenges of agriculture extension by improving the capacity and effectiveness of extension advisors through new modes of communication and easier ways of accessing up-to-date and relevant information. There is ample knowledge on adoption rates, use intensity, and impact of ICTs for agriculture extension, specifically in a farmers’ context. However, there is limited research on experts’ perceptions of ICT’s usefulness, as well as organizational dimensions that facilitate ICT use. In particular, the interdependency between ICT tools and the social and organizational aspects in the context of agriculture extension is poorly understood. This thesis aims to provide evidence on the implementation process of ICT initiatives in agriculture extension organizations and their use. The three specific objectives of the thesis are the following: (i) to provide empirical evidence on the complex interaction of social and technical actors and their assemblage to set up an ICT-based initiatives called Agricultural Knowledge Centers (AKCs); (ii) to provide empirical evidence on experts’ perceptions and their use of ICTs in agriculture extension offices; and (iii) to bring insights on organizational characteristics that facilitate or hinder the learning of an organization for successfully applying ICTs in agriculture extension services. This thesis analyzes the innovation process of ICT-based initiatives in agriculture extension by building on the definition of innovation as an alignment of hardware (technical devices, bodily skills), software (mode of thinking, discourse, perceptions) and orgware (rules, structure, and standards). The thesis adopted a research approach that can be broadly labeled as an interpretive research approach that allows for understanding a phenomenon by interpreting stakeholders’ and research participants’ experiences. It relied on a case study methodology and review of existing knowledge on ICTs in agriculture extension. The case studies are AKCs located in agriculture extension offices in South Wollo, in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The research-for-development project, ‘Livestock and Irrigation Value Chains for Ethiopian Smallholders’ (LIVES) from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), piloted AKCs to contribute to the government’s effort to strengthen the extension system. This thesis contains three empirical chapters in addition to the introduction and general discussion. The first empirical chapter analyzes the process of establishing AKCs in five extension organizations in South Wollo by capturing the role of human actors (employees of the project, experts in the extension offices, and the ICT managers) and the role of the non-human actors (computers, internet connectivity, texts, and office infrastructure) in carrying out the AKC initiative. The Actor Network Theory (ANT) framed the analysis of the results. The findings show how people and technology came together to establish AKCs that provide access to digital knowledge. Conditions that contributed to creating and stabilizing the AKC actor network were the following: (i) the presence of an actor to facilitate the process, (ii) alignment of interests among actors in the network, (iii) building the capacities and motivation of the various actors to execute their roles, and (iv) availability of computers with strong internet connections. The second empirical chapter analyzes extension experts’ perceptions of ICT’s usefulness for their extension job and how they used ICTs in four AKCs in South Wollo. The three concepts from the Theory of Planned Behavior: attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control framed the analysis of the results. Extension experts had a positive attitude towards the usefulness of ICTs for personal benefits. However, they did not perceive ICTs as useful for searching and exchanging agricultural information because the rigid extension approach used in their organizations allows primarily for specific printed knowledge resources. The results show that while access to the ICT hardware is a prerequisite, it is not a guarantee that extension experts will apply ICTs for professional use. For ICTs to be used by agriculture extension experts, there needs to be greater flexibility for experts’ response to farmers’ needs and favorable conditions that facilitate self-initiated knowledge-seeking behavior among extension experts. The third empirical chapter analyzes the organizational characteristics identified in the existing literature for accelerating or hindering ICT use for agriculture extension. The qualitative review of 49 articles highlights that most of the scientific studies focus on individuals’ characteristics to explain ICT use and only partially investigate organizational aspects. Organizational characteristics identified in these 49 articles were further analyzed using the seven dimensions of the learning organization concept. The analysis showed that opportunities for training and creating structures to encourage learning were prominent characteristics limiting or supporting ICT use. However, the literature documented no evidence on characteristics such as collaboration, leadership style, and empowerment for creating a shared vision for improving services via ICT use. The review results illustrate the importance of strategizing ICT use in agricultural advisory organizations and following principles of organizational learning for capacity development at an individual, team, and organizational level. Based on the three empirical chapters, chapter five discusses that optimal ICT use for agriculture extension can be achieved when the introduction of technology is supported by new rules and organizational structures, and when the intended purpose fits the shared way of thinking and the future vision employees have for their extension work. This section highlights that successful ICT use in agriculture extension organizations requires not only the technical devices, individuals’ attitudes, or institutions, but also the alignment of all the three dimensions. Therefore, aiming to improve the extension services only through the provision of ICT devices would be too simplistic; it ignores the complex interaction of the various components. This thesis makes the following recommendations for the design and implementation of future ICT-based initiatives in Ethiopia and other countries with a similar context: (i) a project initiator should create awareness on the purpose of ICT for agriculture extension and develop the capacity of targeted beneficiaries on ICT use; (ii) organizations that aim to utilize ICT should create organizational conditions that facilitate learning at the levels of the individual, team, and organization; (iii) development projects and programs should recognize and stimulate interaction between innovation components to successfully implement ICT in agriculture extension and ensure their utilization; and (iv) the government should create an enabling environment that provides support structures for knowledge sharing and information exchange to respond to farmers’ needs.
Seeing through two lenses: applying actor-centred and structural perspectives to understand farmer innovation and technological change
(2022) Pircher, Thomas; Knierim, Andrea
Science and technology can make a major contribution to ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition. Developing and spreading of innovations in agriculture and nutrition therefore is a main objective of international agricultural research. Despite decades of research, understanding the complex processes around technological change by small-scale farmers remains a challenge for researchers. Whereas behavioural approaches often neglect the influence of the wider innovation systems, approaches that focus on larger systemic challenges tend to downplay human agency. Research approaches that analytically differentiate structural and actor-centred perspectives and their interplay hold potential for more nuanced understanding of farmer innovation and technological change. This thesis reviewed and explored the application of approaches that aim to understand farmer innovation and technological change through the interplay of two analytical lenses: actor-centred and structural. The three empirical research studies addressed different aspects of agriculture and nutrition, and included multiple study locations. Although each of the studies had its own objectives, they all relate to analytical dualism. In this regard, the study approaches separately focused on actor-centred and structural perspectives, and analysed how these influenced each other. Data collection and analysis in the empirical chapters followed these principles by developing and applying adapted conceptualisations of seed systems and agricultural innovation systems. The systematic literature review in Chapter 2 provided an overview on methods for studying farmers’ choices and demand for seed of roots, tuber and banana crops. The review identified 46 studies in which researchers studied various aspects and types of farmers’ demand for seed of five crops in 18 countries. The qualitative analysis and categorization of the identified studies have led into a classification scheme. In one type of studies farmers expressed their preferences and choices through surveys or engagements in trials, auctions, choice experiments and interviews (explicit demand articulation). In another types of studies, researchers characterized farmers’ use of varieties through determinants of adoption, current seed management practices or the functioning of their seed and farming systems (implicit demand articulation). The study of the cassava seed system in Chapter 3 developed and applied a research approach that recognizes the interplay between farmer’s demand for seed and the seed supply functions of the cassava seed system in Nigeria. The farmers maintained and gradually replaced a portfolio of varieties from multiple sources that reflected individual trait preferences. The national agriculture development program alone did not have the capacity to supply farmers with sufficient seed of desired varieties. Exchange between farmers and informal seed sellers contributed to the distribution of seed and new varieties. Informal seed sellers and decentralized seed multipliers have the potential to respond to farmers’ heterogeneous demands. However, they would need continuous support from formal seed system actors to reach underserved markets. The study of innovation and scaling in Kenya and Uganda in Chapter 4 analysed innovation processes in agriculture and nutrition through farmer-centred and structural perspectives. In an international research and development project, researchers introduced farmers to new agriculture and nutrition practices in action learning activities. The farmers selected, adapted and combined the promoted practices according to their individual preferences and needs. In addition to the researchers from the project, a wide range of innovation support providers encouraged farmers to develop innovations in farming, marketing, and nutrition. Promoting farmer innovation processes beyond the project sites and duration would require the engagement of multiple innovation support providers in creating an enabling environment for experimentation and demand articulation. Analysing the empirical chapters with the overarching theoretical framework of the thesis highlights how structural conditions of seed systems and agricultural innovation systems influenced farmer innovation or technological change processes. The cases also illustrate how farmers reacted upon these conditions through social interactions. As a major finding, the analysis points out that the process of structural elaboration – how the agency of farmers influenced structural conditions - remains limited across the empirical chapters. This indicates a need to empower actors in articulating their demands for research and extension services and shaping their institutional environments.
The potential of social innovation in rural revitalisation : a comparative case study from Taiwan
(2022) Chen, Hsi-Chun; Knierim, Andrea
Social innovations have been frequently discussed in the context of rural development and even viewed as a key toward rural revitalisation, promising to cope with such societal challenges. However, to what extent and how social innovation can contribute to rural development, especially under the future challenge of rural decline, still remains an ongoing concern. This research aims to explore the potential of social innovation in rural revitalisation by clarifying the actors’ roles in social innovation processes. In particular, the study made use of four cases of rural development practice in Taiwan. The special attention of these case studies draws on the four objectives, which are: (1) to explore the role of actors in community-driven social innovation; (2) to clarify the role of actors in external support-driven rural social innovation; (3) to provide recommendations for integrating the concept of social innovation into rural development policies and programmes; (4) to further theoretical and methodological insights for the study of rural social innovation. The study concludes that the internal actors may not aim to innovate society — they intend to solve practical local issues. Therefore, the outcomes of social innovation can be unintentional; tangible and material outcomes are crucial for internal actors, which may challenge the literature’s perspective that treats material outcomes as supplementary results. Furthermore, external actors could play a key role as helpers in fuelling social innovation only if they get sufficient support from rural areas and the public sector, resulting in their growth while facing upcoming challenges. The study also discussed the pros, cons, and differences between community-driven and external support-driven approaches. These two approaches―are like two sides of the same coin―while the former is more local-oriented in terms of local targeted problems and local joint actors, the latter is rather issue-oriented that can focus on the targeted problems and the joint actors without geographical boundaries. In addition, the external support-driven approach conducted by this research to a certain degree reflects the “nexogenous approach.” From the empirical experiences of this study, this approach might not guarantee the success of rural social innovation―however, it did provide a bright chance for the public sector to participate not only as a partner or sponsor in rural areas but they can actively be as a bridge to link potential partners somewhere beyond geographical boundaries. Three strategies are provided for the public sector, encompassing: (1) the public sector should actively play a bridging role to provide opportunities for connecting external actors; (2) the public sector could use programmes, such as village competitions or other innovative activities, to provide a reachable share vision for people to participate; (3) rural development related programmes should draw more attentions om educational and learning types of programmes to develop self-learning mechanism in local communities. For theoretical and methodological insights, the ANT can be better used to explore research with inequality consideration and without initial social explanation assumptions. The actor-oriented approach may be suitably used to study interactions among clear differentiation of social actors with initial social explanation assumptions. From the findings of this case study, it can be concluded that social innovation in terms of rural revitalisation is valuable in its outcomes, uncertain in its emergence, challenged by the marginalising rural reality, and promising on external connections without geographical boundaries. Since the future of rural marginalisation is considered inevitable, to survive in its effects is essential. In other words, rural social innovation may not be able to eliminate the causes of rural marginalisation; however, it provides an approach to adapt its effects, that is, to weave a future that rural areas might not have many inhabitants―however, they have more self-organisation―initiators, actors, more external partners and connections are driven by needs to solve common societal problems―without geographical boundaries.

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