Institut für Tropische Agrarwissenschaften (Hans-Ruthenberg-Institut)

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Household decision dynamics and food insecurity: evidence from the one-cow-per-poor-family programme in Rwanda
(2025) Kareem, Olayinka Idowu; Akeremale, Mayokun; Wieck, Christine; Dusingizimana, Theogene; Kamana, Olivier; Chagunda, Mizeck G. G.
Rwanda, like many African countries, endeavours to overcome the food insecurity challenge with different initiatives. One such initiative is the ‘ one-cow-per-poor-family’ programme known as the ‘Girinka Programme’. With the introduction of every cow into the household, there is a resultant change in household bio-economics. Subsequently, some decisions must be made regarding either the consumption or the selling of milk, calves or manure. This study investigates the effect of household decision dynamics within the framework of this programme on food insecurity in Rwanda. The micro-econometrics analytical approach is adopted in the empirical strategy using the household data from the ‘Girinka Programme’ in an ordered probit model. A total of 3000 households were surveyed, and data were collected across 20 districts in Rwanda in 2016 and 2017 and used in the empirical estimations. Our findings affirm the a priori expectation that households’ food insecurity is reduced with additional income sources. Besides, the results indicate that the households acquired and/or used more land by participating in the programme through access to cow’s manure and income earned either by selling the heifer or milk, than before the programme. Also, we find that households with a higher number of calves are more food-secure. The estimations indicate that there is heterogeneity in the level of food insecurity across the districts owing to the decision dynamics of the households across the districts, which lead to different outcomes. The study concludes that participation in the Girinka Programme's intervention significantly reduced food insecurity. To this end, there is a need to establish, as a strategic policy option, the institutionalisation and strengthening of the Girinka Programme for sustainability, which should be affirmed and safeguarded as a social protection policy that directly impacts food insecurity and supports the attainment of sustainable development.
Abundance and symbiotic efficiency of indigenous rhizobia nodulating faba bean and common bean in southern Ethiopia
(2025) Geremu, Tadele; Abera, Girma; Lemma, Bekele; Rasche, Frank
The symbiotic association between legumes and indigenous rhizobia is crucial for enhancing legume productivity. However, inconsistent results and suboptimal performance of rhizobia inoculation in promoting legume production have been observed. In this regard, we assessed the abundance and symbiotic efficiency of indigenous rhizobia nodulating faba bean and common bean, as well as the soil factors affecting rhizobia abundance in southern Ethiopia. The study also compared the performance of indigenous rhizobia with commercial strains and mineral nitrogen treatment plants. A total of 132 soil samples were collected from barley, wheat, maize, potato, common bean, faba bean, intercropped common bean and maize, enset, and grazing land. Indigenous rhizobia were isolated and enumerated from these samples. Faba bean (FB) and common bean (CB) rhizobia population ranged from 0.0 to 1.7 x 10 4 and 1.7 x 10 1 to 1.7 x 10 7 cells g -1 soil, respectively. Rhizobia populations were significantly influenced by soil pH, EC, OC, TN, CEC, exchangeable acidity, aluminium, and the host crop occurrence. The isolated indigenous rhizobia demonstrated significant potential in enhancing nodulation, shoot dry weight, and TN accumulation in plants. Symbiotic efficiency indices revealed that over 95% of the indigenous rhizobia were effective in nodulation and shoot dry matter accumulation, indicating that naturally occurring rhizobia are efficient and may reduce the need for commercial inoculants in areas with abundant indigenous populations. However, in areas where rhizobia populations are low, strains isolated from faba bean (33FB, 84FB) and common bean (44CB, 102CB), which outperformed commercial strains should be further evaluated. The results suggest that soil rhizobia population levels should be assessed prior to inoculation to optimize nodulation and crop performance. To this end, it is emphasized to evaluate soil rhizobia strains to assess their stability and competitiveness relative to commercial inoculants across different agroecological conditions.
Technology adoption and farm performance in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Mozambique and Ghana
(2025) Asravor, Jacob; Zeller, Manfred
Increasing the productivity of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is fundamental to achieving many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the region and, by extension, in the world. Given its importance to rural livelihoods and national economies in SSA, productivity growth in this crucial sector has the potential to stimulate broad-based poverty reduction (SGD 1) and further address the persistent food insecurity and malnutrition challenges (SDG 2) faced by the region. However, despite its potential for growth and importance to the region, productivity growth in agriculture has either stagnated or declined in SSA over the years. Efforts to tackle this persistent challenge have been focused on the promotion of improved technological packages and modern farming practices in various parts of the region. Nonetheless, adoption has mostly remained sluggish across SSA, stressing the continuing need for a deeper understanding of the underlying barriers to sustained adoption, as well as the effects of adopted technologies and farming practices on farm performance, particularly in terms of technical efficiency and technological gains. The smallholder farming contexts of Mozambique and Ghana offer distinct cases for gaining useful insights into the underlying barriers to sustained adoption of modern technologies and farming practices, as well as their effects on farm performance. Specifically, despite ongoing efforts by the Mozambican government and development partners to promote sustainable intensification practices, such as integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) practices (including mineral fertilizer, improved seeds and depending on the location, organic inputs such as manure and compost), adoption remains low among farm households. As a result, resource-poor farmers often resort to unsustainable land use practices, such as shifting cultivation, slash-and-burn agriculture, deforestation and forest degradation, along with low-cost agronomic practices like crop rotation, crop residue retention and intercropping to safeguard soil fertility. However, evidence is scarcely available on the underlying barriers to sustained adoption of promoted ISFM practices, along with the technological and technical efficiency gains associated with integrating improved versus recycled seeds with agronomic practices in Mozambique. Furthermore, one of the key challenges to technology adoption, as well as to farm performance and the long-term sustainability of agriculture, is the issue of aging farming population. This issue is particularly pressing in Ghana, where, in addition to the growing disinterest of young people in farming and an estimated life expectancy ranging from 55 – 65 years, the average age of farmers is reported to be 55. Given that the majority (73.5%) of Ghana’s population is below the age of 36, an improved understanding of how farm operators’ age influences their managerial performance and technology adoption is crucial for shaping evidence-informed policies aimed at attracting, retaining and leveraging this demographic dividend within the Ghanaian agricultural sector. From the foregoing, this thesis has three key objectives: (1) to explore context-specific evidence on the systemic barriers to sustained adoption of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) practices by Mozambican smallholder farmers; (2) to examine the technological and technical efficiency gains associated with integrating improved versus recycled seeds with agronomic practices such as crop rotation, intercropping and crop residue management by Mozambican smallholder farmers; and (3) to assess how the age of farm operators – disaggregated into the youth, middle-aged and aged – influences their managerial performance and farm technology adoption in Ghana. The objectives of this thesis were achieved using data from both primary and secondary sources. Relying on mixed-methods research design, qualitative data were drawn using key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs), and quantitative data via a household survey in the Central and Northern zones of Mozambique. These primary data were used to address the first and second objectives of the thesis. Overall, 32 qualitative interviews, consisting of 8 FGDs, 5 medium- and large-scale farmer KIIs and 19 expert KIIs were conducted in Mozambique. This was followed by a household survey which was conducted in the Central and Northern zones of Mozambique, involving 607 farming households who were selected through a multi-stage sampling technique. Both datasets were collected in 2022. To address the third objective of the thesis, secondary data from two nationally representative surveys in Ghana were used. These include all seven waves of the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS) which were conducted from 1987/88 – 2016/17 and the two waves of the Ghana Socio-economic Panel Survey (GSPS) conducted between 2009/10 and 2014/15. While the GLSS was implemented using a repeated cross-sectional design, the GSPS followed a panel design. Overall, 24,596 farm households across Ghana were included in the sample for analysis. This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the research topic by providing a general overview of the study within the global and sub-Saharan African contexts, followed by background information on agriculture and technology adoption in both Mozambique and Ghana. Chapter 2 explores the systemic barriers that continue to impede the sustained uptake of ISFM practices among Mozambican smallholder farmers. Chapter 3 evaluates the technological and technical efficiency gains associated with existing farmer practices of integrating improved versus recycled seeds with agronomic practices in Mozambique. Chapter 4 examines the relationship between farm operators’ age, technology adoption and managerial performance in Ghana. Finally, chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the thesis, outlines its limitations and makes recommendations for policy and future studies. Chapter 2 relies on mixed-methods research design to explore the systemic barriers to sustained adoption of ISFM practices among Mozambican resource-poor farmers. Complementing content analysis of qualitative data with descriptive analysis of data from a household survey, the findings indicate that whereas Mozambican smallholder farmers have generally recognized the compelling need for ISFM practices in high-value crop production systems such as vegetables, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco, they are reluctant to make similar investments in food crops. Instead, they adopt low-cost agronomic practices such as crop residue management, intercropping, crop rotation and shifting cultivation to safeguard soil fertility in food crop systems. Evidence further shows that the use of improved seeds, mineral fertilizers and depending on the location, external organic inputs such as manure and compost, is more prevalent among three groups of Mozambican smallholder farmers: independent vegetable producers, farmers participating in contract farming schemes and those residing in districts bordering Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Additionally, despite expressing strong willingness to invest in these inputs, farmers’ access to and use of these inputs are hindered by a complex set of systemic barriers, including unfavorable market conditions which limit profitability and intensify risk; institutional limitations such as credit constraints and human capital limitations; liquidity constraints; challenges associated with key ISFM components; an existing culture of dependency shaped by past experiences of farmers with free inputs; and entrenched perceptions among both farmers and professionals that Mozambican soils are inherently “fertile” or “virgins” and “fertilizers destroy the soil”. Given these findings, the study recommends that interventions aiming to promote sustainable land use practices like ISFM in land-abundant contexts of SSA like Mozambique, should prioritize addressing these systemic barriers to ensure sustained adoption of these practices. For instance, to raise productivity in food crop systems, agrarian interventions should adopt a holistic value chain approach which goes beyond the production phase to strengthen other critical segments of the value chain, such as extending agro-dealer networks to major production areas, as well as enhancing access of smallholder farmers to output markets that offer stable and fair prices. Again, there is the urgent need to intensify education and raise awareness among both farmers and professionals to dispel the widespread misconception that fertilizers damage the soil and on the need for farmers to implement ISFM as a package rather than in isolation. Addressing these systemic constraints holds an enormous prospect for fostering the sustained uptake of sustainable intensification practices like ISFM in Mozambique. Drawing on the findings from chapter 2, which indicates that Mozambican smallholder farmers seldom invest in purchased inputs for food crops, chapter 3 utilizes the same data to assess the technological and technical efficiency gains associated with existing farmer practices of integrating improved versus recycled seeds with agronomic practices, including crop rotation, intercropping and crop residue management in food crop systems. Relying on an endogeneity-corrected stochastic frontier and metafrontier functions to analyze the quantitative data, results from this first-stage analysis were contextualized and reinforced with evidence from the qualitative data. The findings suggest that farm households who integrated improved seeds with agronomic practices achieve a modest technological advantage (4%) relative to their peers who integrated recycled seeds with these same practices. Nonetheless, the results reveal no significant difference in technical efficiency between both groups. Instead, farm households in both groups performed these agronomic practices so poorly, such that each group could expand its total farm production by more than 50% simply by implementing these existing agronomic practices more efficiently. Consequently, the greatest potential for raising farm output in food crop systems in Mozambique lies in the capacity of resource-poor households to effectively implement these existing agronomic practices. Based on the findings, it is recommended that programs aiming to boost productivity in food crop systems in Mozambique should prioritize building the capacity of farm households to enable them implement these agronomic practices more efficiently. Encouraging resource-poor farmers to strictly adhere to recommended agronomic protocols, such as selecting the right crop mixes for intercropping and rotation, retaining crop residues on the field and using inoculants to boost nitrogen fixation in legumes can considerably enhance soil fertility and support productivity in subsequent crops. Given the increasingly aging farming population in Ghana and the urgent need for evidence-informed policies aimed at attracting and retaining the country’s growing youth population in agriculture, chapter 4 of the thesis relies on a nationally representative data from the GLSS and GSPS to evaluate how the age of resource-poor farmers influence their farm-level decision-making in terms of technology adoption and managerial performance. Drawing on a three-decade dataset from cereal-producing households and guided by the definitions of youth provided by the African Youth Charter and Ghana’s National Youth Policy, farm households were categorized into three age-based groups: youth (15–35 years), middle-aged (36–59 years) and aged (60 years and above). The findings indicate that farm operator age does not have a statistically significant effect on the type or level of agricultural technology adopted by farming households in Ghana. This finding remains robust even when the analysis is disaggregated by cereal type (i.e., maize, rice, millet and sorghum). However, the findings reveal marked differences in managerial performance between younger and older farmers, with the youth exhibiting greater managerial proficiency relative to their older peers. These findings suggest that when offered equal access to productive resources, younger farmers are better equipped to drive agricultural productivity growth in Ghana, thereby significantly contributing to the sector’s growth in the country. The study recommends for policymakers to pursue youth-focused agrarian initiatives that ensure easy access of the youth to productive resources such as land, credit and improved technologies, aimed at enabling younger farmers to leverage their potential in driving agricultural productivity gains. Overall, the findings of this thesis bring to the fore the existing systemic barriers that continue to obstruct smallholder investment decisions in sustainable land use practices like ISFM in land-abundant contexts like Mozambique and further underscore the urgent need for policy measures aimed at addressing them. It further stresses that the greatest potential for sustainably raising farm performance in low-input food crop systems in Mozambique lies in the ability of resource-poor farmers to implement these low-cost agronomic practices more efficiently. Finally, the findings highlight the need to focus on enhancing the managerial skillsets of farm operators across all age groups, especially the younger ones, rather than just concentrating on technological advancements.
Rainforest transformation reduces parasitoid wasp diversity—Can the enrichment of flowering vegetation alleviate this?
(2024) Azhar, Azru; Grass, Ingo; Rizali, Akhmad; Pudjianto,; Buchori, Damayanti
In Indonesia, the rapid expansion of oil palm and rubber plantations replaces large areas of tropical rainforest. Rainforest transformation alters the diversity and composition of parasitoid wasp communities, but appropriate management strategies to buffer their decline in rainforest transformation landscapes are not yet developed. Here, we studied the effects of rainforest conversion to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations on parasitoid wasp species richness, abundance and species composition. We also conducted a flowering vegetation enrichment experiment using the flowering weed Asystasia gangetica in all land‐uses to investigate potential mitigation effects on parasitoid wasp diversity and composition. Rainforest transformation to rubber plantations caused a large decrease in species richness (46%) and abundance (59%) of parasitoid wasps. Community structure of parasitoid wasps differed between forest and monoculture habitats with more habitat‐specialised species in forest and a higher proportion of common species in the monoculture. The experimental flowering vegetation enrichment increased parasitoid wasp species richness by 18% and abundance by 127%. Enrichment also enhanced the presence of unique parasitoid species in plantation and furthermore increased differences in community composition between rainforest and plantations. However, the enrichment experiment was confounded by time, meaning that a multi‐year experiment with targeted controls is necessary for statistically more reliable statements. Our study shows the effect of rainforest transformation to oil palm and rubber plantations on parasitoid wasp communities. Although providing additional flowering vegetation in plantations seems to potentially mitigate diversity loss, further research is needed to confirm and to investigate the mechanisms how flowering plants alleviate negative effects of rainforest transformation on parasitoid communities. Thereby, efficient conservation strategies for parasitoids wasps and their biological control services can be developed for rapidly changing tropical landscapes.
Levelling the field: a review of the ICT revolution and agricultural extension in the Global South
(2025) Khan, Rashid Parvez; Gupta, Saurabh; Daum, Thomas; Birner, Regina; Ringler, Claudia
Information and communications technology has evolved significantly over the last seven decades, beginning with radio and video vans and culminating in the rise of smartphones and mobile internet in remote areas of the Global South. While ICT is an integral part of agricultural extension, little is known about how these changes have influenced agricultural extension practices. After a systematic review of 131 papers, we find that changes in ICT have shaped agricultural extension, enabling a shift from linear dissemination and “one‐way communication” to co‐innovation and farmer‐to‐farmer learning. The results indicate the potential for smartphones and mobile internet to democratize agricultural extension.
How much to cut? Finding an optimal thinning intensity of encroaching woody species for the herbaceous community in an East African savanna
(2025) Abate, Teshome; Abebe, Tesfaye; Treydte, Anna
Globally, bush encroachment poses a great threat to the conservation of biodiversity and rangeland productivity. However, control methods of encroaching woody species have rarely been experimentally quantified. We assessed the impact of tree thinning intensities on tree mortality, and the herbaceous community in Borana rangelands, an Ethiopian savannah ecosystem. At two 1.4 ha areas of mono-specific Vachellia drepanolobium stands, we set up 20 m x 10 m experimental plots with four tree-thinning treatments (0%, 33%, 67%, and 100% tree removal), with three replications in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) across two sites. The 0% plot was left uncleared and used as control. Over two growing periods, we monitored resulting tree mortality, coppicing, seedling mortality, and recruitment as well as herbaceous layer attributes (diversity, biomass) and the rangeland conditions. Tree thinning intensity significantly increased abundance of the dominant desirable grass species. Total herbaceous and grass species richness, diversity and biomass were significantly improved under high (100%) and moderate (67%) tree removal intensity. We conclude that tree thinning at moderate intensity (67%) was most effective in enhancing mortality of encroached trees, and improving grass diversity, and herbaceous biomass. We stress that effective tree thinning requires post-thinning management and repeated bush control measures. Our findings contribute to development of recommendations on controlling bush encroachment, species restoration, and rangeland productivity in Ethiopian rangelands.
Causal machine learning methods for understanding land use and land cover change
(2026) Eigenbrod, F.; Alexander, Peter; Apfel, Nicolas; Athanasiadis, Ioannis N.; Berger, Thomas; Bullock, James M.; Duveiller, Gregory; Equihua, Julian; Menezes, Isaura; Moreira, Rodrigo; Paudel, Dilli; Sitokonstantinou, Vasileios; Reichstein, Markus; Willcock, Simon; Woodman, Tamsin; Eigenbrod, F.; School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, SSO17 1BJ, Southampton, UK; Alexander, Peter; School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, EH9 3JW, Edinburgh, UK; Apfel, Nicolas; Department of Economics, University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria; Athanasiadis, Ioannis N.; Artificial Intelligence, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Berger, Thomas; Department of Land Use Economics, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany; Bullock, James M.; UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, OX10 8BB, Wallingford, UK; Duveiller, Gregory; Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, 07745, Jena, Germany; Equihua, Julian; Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), 04318, Leipzig, Germany; Menezes, Isaura; Artificial Intelligence, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Moreira, Rodrigo; Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Federal University of Rondônia, 76900-726, Ji-Paraná, RO, Brazil; Paudel, Dilli; Artificial Intelligence, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Sitokonstantinou, Vasileios; Image Processing Laboratory, Universitat de València, Paterna, 46980, València, Spain; Reichstein, Markus; Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, 07745, Jena, Germany; Willcock, Simon; School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2DG, Gwynedd, UK; Woodman, Tamsin; School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, EH9 3JW, Edinburgh, UK
Context: Understanding the roles of different drivers in land use and land cover change (LULCC) is a critical research challenge. However, as LULCC is the result of complex, socio-ecological processes and is highly context dependent, achieving such understanding is difficult. This is particularly true for causal modelling approaches that are critical for effective policy formulation. Causal machine learning (ML) methods could help address this challenge, but are as yet poorly understood or applied by the LULCC community. Objectives: To provide an accessible introduction to the state of the art for causal ML methods, their limitations, and their potential applications understanding LULCC. Methods: We conducted two workshops where we identified the most promising ML methods for increasing understanding of LULCC dynamics. Results: We provide a brief overview of the challenges to causal modelling of LULCC, including a simple example, and the most relevant causal ML approaches for addressing these challenges, as well as their limitations. Conclusions: Causal ML methods hold considerable promise for improving causal modelling of LULCC. However, the complexity of LULCC dynamics mean that such methods must be combined with domain understanding and qualitative insights for effective policy design.
Digital innovations and institutional barriers in agricultural input subsidy programmes in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Nigeria
(2026) Adetoyinbo, Ayobami; Gupta, Saurabh; Okoruwa, Victor; Adetoyinbo, Ayobami; Department of Agricultural Economics, Agrifood Chain Management, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Gupta, Saurabh; Centre for Development Policy and Management (CDPM), Indian Institute of Management, Udaipur (IIMU), Udaipur, India; Okoruwa, Victor; Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Motivation: Agricultural input subsidy programmes are crucial for improving agricultural productivity in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). However, there is little empirical evidence on how second‐generation input subsidy programmes (SISPs) based on information and communication technology (ICT) are implemented and the institutional challenges that undermine their effectiveness. Purpose: This article assesses the implementation of ICT‐based SISPs and their challenges in SSA using the Nigerian e‐wallet input subsidy programme as a case study. We draw on a conceptual framework that integrates the national innovation system (NIS), contingency theory, and new institutional economics. Approach and methods: We analysed expert interviews and participatory qualitative data from Process Net‐Maps and focus group discussions (FGDs) using content and Process Net‐Map analyses. Findings: The results show that over 20 public, private and community actors were involved in implementing the e‐wallet SISP across five stages. The programme increased private‐sector participation, reduced corruption, improved recipient targeting, and speeded up input delivery compared to first‐generation input programmes. However, weak institutional arrangements (such as poor funding, restricted institutional collaborations, and stakeholder capability gaps) undermined the innovation aspect of the e‐wallet SISP. The programme also faced five main challenges: policy inconsistency, poor information flow and weak reporting, moral hazards such as “round‐tripping,” input leakage and diversion, and elite capture. The study concludes that institutional constraints, rigid organizational structures, and a narrow focus on solving first‐generation programme challenges limited the ability of actors to adapt to new and evolving challenges. Policy implications: Effective SISPs and input policies require supportive institutional environments that allow actors from all sectors to function effectively. Programmes should thus be designed and managed with flexible and organic structures that foster collaboration among private, public, and community stakeholders. Continuous, stage‐specific evaluations and smart governance tools, such as real‐time mobile data collection and buy‐back initiatives, can strengthen monitoring, input tracking, accountability, and input use incentives.
Identifying governance challenges in scaling biofortification programs and the potential of training: a case study of Uganda
(2025) Alioma, Richard; Zeller, Manfred; Birner, Regina; Bosch, Christine; Muayahoto, Bho; Zeller, Manfred; Department of Rural Development Theory and Policy, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany; Birner, Regina; Department of Social and Institutional Change in Agricultural Development, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany; Bosch, Christine; Department of Social and Institutional Change in Agricultural Development, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany; Muayahoto, Bho; HarvestPlus, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, United States
Introduction: Biofortification initiatives can significantly help reduce micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries. However, when hidden hunger affects a large segment of the population, large-scale implementation is necessary to achieve the desired results. We aimed to identify governance challenges in biofortification, and potential remedies based on a conceptual framework that considers low demand and the invisible nature of micronutrient traits in crops. Methods: Using process net maps and quantitative methods, this paper explores how farmer training can address governance issues. Results: Results show that, in addition to common agricultural marketing issues, sweet potato vine multipliers struggle with vine supply, value chain actors adulterate iron beans, and consumers are hesitant to pay higher prices for biofortified crops. These problems may result from information asymmetry, merit goods, collective action issues, and free riding. Furthermore, training had little impact on reducing the governance challenge arising from information asymmetry. Discussion/conclusion: One of the key solutions was investing in subsidies to increase production and raise awareness of the importance of nutritious foods. With governance problems, there is a need to take them into consideration when planning and expanding biofortification programs.
Evaluating the protein value of fresh tropical forage grasses and forage legumes using in vitro and chemical fractionation methods
(2021) Salazar-Cubillas, Khaterine C.; Dickhöfer, Uta
The objectives of the present study were (1) to assess the adequacy of the in vitro and chemical methods to predict post-ruminal crude protein supply (PRCP) from fresh tropical forage, and (2) to identify PRCP supply predictors. Twenty-three fresh forage grasses and 15 forage legumes commonly used in domestic cattle feeding in the tropics and subtropics were incubated in the rumen of cows to determine ruminal crude protein (CP) degradation. The PRCP supply was calculated from in situ rumen-undegraded CP and in vitro organic matter digestibility (i.e., reference method), from ammonia-nitrogen release during in vitro incubation (i.e., in vitro method), and from the concentrations of chemical CP fractions (i.e., chemical method). The adequacy was evaluated using error-index and dimensionless parameters, and stepwise regression was used to select PRCP predictors. Adequacy ranged from poor to moderate (0.53 to 0.74) for the in vitro method being lower for forage legumes at a slow rumen passage rate (0.20), and even poorer (0.02 to 0.13) for the chemical method. Hence, the in vitro method can estimate PRCP supply in tropical forages with moderate to high but not with slow passage rates. Equations developed in the present study appear to predict PRCP supply with reasonable adequacy.
Effect of irrigation canal conveyance efficiency enhancement on crop productivity under climate change in Nepal
(2024) Basukala, Amit Kumar; Eschenbach, Annette; Rasche, Livia
Nepal is expanding its irrigation facilities as an adaptive measure to climate change; however, the current canal conveyance efficiency (CCE) is low with significant water losses. In this study, we assess the potential impact of increasing CCE on the productivity of rice, maize, and wheat under different climate change scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5), utilizing three bias-adjusted general circulation models. The study simulates potential yields at ecoregion levels for two periods: near future (2023 to 2050) and end-century (2075 to 2100). Management scenarios include the following: (1) business as usual, (2) CCE at 30%, (3) CCE at 50%, and (4) CCE at 70%. The results indicate that increasing CCE to 30%, coupled with expanded irrigated areas and adjusted fertilization rates, could boost yields by three tons per hectare across all three crops at the national level. Further increasing CCE to 50% could yield additional increases of up to 0.6 t/ha of maize and 1.2 t/ha of rice in the terai region. A CCE of 70% results in further increases of up to 2.1 t/ha of rice and 1.2 t/ha of maize. The benefits of improved CCE vary by location, with the subtropical terai region experiencing the most and the mountain regions showing the least. We conclude that there is potential to increase yields by increasing CCE to 70% in the terai region, 50% in the hill region, and 30% in the mountains. Wheat appears to benefit the least from improved CCE. This work highlights efficient irrigation as a reliable adaptive measure for future climate change in Nepal.
Unveiling the plant-associated microbiome responses and nitrification inhibition aspects of perennial intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium)
(2025) Issifu, Sulemana; Rasche, Frank
Perennialization of agriculture has recently garnered attention as a nature-based solution (NBS) to complement predominantly annual cropping systems, offering a pathway toward sustainable agriculture and enhanced protection of agroecosystems. In this regard, the perennial intermediate wheatgrass, Thinopyrum intermedium, trade name Kernza®, has been proposed as a model plant for achieving perennialization of cereal cropping systems. Kernza® provides a broad range of ecosystem services, including enhanced carbon sequestration, enhanced biodiversity, and regulation of the nitrogen (N) cycle. Some studies reported regulated nitrification in Kernza® fields through reduced N2O emissions, low N leaching, and high legacy N. These traits indicate a plant-exerted control of nitrification through the secretion of bioactive metabolites, a concept known as biological nitrification inhibition (BNI). However, no study had investigated the mechanism behind these BNI traits of Kernza®. Relatedly, existing BNI studies have largely been confined to the identification and testing of single and novel metabolites. Moreover, while some studies have reported the ability of Kernza® to stimulate microbial activity and enhance microbial diversity, there is currently no study in a European context on the potential influence of Kernza® on the rhizosphere microbiome. Thus, this doctoral study aimed to fill these knowledge gaps. The first study used a metabolome fingerprinting approach to profile the metabolome of the Kernza® biomass collected from the field and root exudates collected under N sources (ammonium (NH4+) versus nitrate (NO3-)) in a hydroponic system. Multiple nitrification inhibitors, including several phenolic metabolites, were identified in higher quantities in the biomass of Kernza® than in annual wheat. These metabolites were also concurrently exuded in higher quantities by the roots of Kernza® under NH4+-N source than NO3--N source. Bioassays involving multiple ammonia-oxidising bacteria and archaea (AOB and AOA) confirmed the antimicrobial properties of crude root exudates of Kernza®, as well as individual metabolites such as caffeic acid, vanillic acid, vanillin, and phenylalanine. Soil incubation experiments further demonstrated the nitrification inhibition potential of all tested metabolites, except phenylalanine. This study presents the initial evidence elucidating the mechanisms by which Kernza® regulates nitrification and clarifies the function of Kernza’s® metabolome in mediating nitrification inhibition. In the second study, a pairwise combinatorial approach was employed to assess the interactions among biochemically distinct metabolites co-exuded by Kernza® – caffeic acid, vanillic acid, vanillin, and phenylalanine – against multiple ammonia-oxidisers and soil nitrification. It was found that the metabolites interacted both synergistically and antagonistically against the test strains and soil nitrification, with antagonism being the most predominant interaction among the metabolites. Caffeic acid exhibited single agent dominance (SAD), dominating all other metabolites in all combinations. Furthermore, nitrifiers responded differentially to the metabolites – affirming that nitrifiers are differentially sensitive to inhibitors. Both individual and paired metabolites inhibited the growth of multiple AOB and AOA, as well as soil nitrification – suggesting that both synergism and antagonism did not impair the inhibitory potentials of the metabolites. This evidence suggests that biochemically distinct metabolites exuded by Kernza® and other BNI-positive plants may be interacting in diverse ways in the rhizosphere to suppress nitrification. The third study assessed the impact of Kernza®-induced perennialization on rhizomicrobiome and root endophytes in comparison to annual wheat under an agroclimatic gradient (Sweden, France, and Belgium). The results suggest pronounced similarities in the rhizobacterial composition of Kernza® and annual wheat, with no significant difference in the alpha diversity of their rhizomicrobiome. Beta diversity analysis revealed that factors such as country (agroclimatic conditions), sampling depth (spatial), and year (temporal) rather exerted greater influence than crop type. Notwithstanding, Kernza® promoted the stability of the rhizomicrobiome than annual wheat based on year-on-year comparison – suggesting that perennialization has the ability to protect rhizomicrobiome from ecological perturbation. Moreover, Kernza® recruited and internalised a higher proportion of the rhizosphere microbiome into its root tissues compared to annual wheat, indicating a potential role of crop-associated microbiomes in the lifecycle of Kernza®. Furthermore, an environment-wide comparison with agroecologically relevant database revealed that Kernza®, compared to annual wheat, harboured a significant proportion of rhizobacterial taxa associated with the rhizosphere and grassland ecosystems – supporting the notion that Kernza® shares ecological characteristics with natural grasslands. This study adds to the growing body of knowledge on the rhizosphere ecology of Kernza® and provides further evidence for the ecosystem service potential of Kernza®.
Coffee berry borer control, but not coffee yield, is mediated by non-additive interaction between birds and ants across different cultivation systems
(2026) Cardona Tejada, Damaris A.; Parra, Juan L.; Grass, Ingo; Schurr, Frank M.
Coffee is one of the most traded tropical crops, cultivated in some of the most biodiverse regions on the planet. Coffee production can be seriously reduced by the coffee berry borer (CBB), a specialized beetle that feeds on the endosperm of coffee berries. Given the CBB's economic relevance, coffee-producing countries have developed extensive Integrated Pest Management programs. Nonetheless, most of these programs fail to incorporate CBB control by natural enemies such as birds and ants. While the effects of birds and ants on CBB suppression have been demonstrated to be positive when studied in isolation, their interactive effects have been little studied. To better understand the effects of the trophic interaction between birds and ants on CBB control, we conducted a full-factorial block experiment excluding birds and ants from coffee shrubs. We distributed 49 experimental blocks across three different coffee systems in a Colombian landscape: sun-exposed coffee, coffee-plantain intercropping, and shade coffee. We found birds to be key control agents of CBB: in the presence of ants, bird exclusion increased CBB infestation by 36 %. However, in the absence of ants, birds had little effect on CBB infestation, demonstrating that the effects of birds and ants were non-additive. This suggests that birds control CBB through a trophic cascade mediated by ants. We also found that the effects of exclusions were modified by the cultivation system, with the shade coffee system consistently reducing CBB infestation. Our experiment demonstrates that crop diversification is an effective measure for integrating local enemies into IPM strategies. Nonetheless, we acknowledge that trophic interactions are highly complex and exhibit a context-dependency that can result in the suppression of biological pest control. Therefore, we recommend conducting future analysis on evaluating the effects of predator´s community composition to encourage the development of IPM programs that leverage biodiversity in agroecosystems.
Complementary effects of pollination and biocontrol services enable ecological intensification in macadamia orchards
(2024) Anders, Mina; Westphal, Catrin; Linden, Valerie M. G.; Weier, Sina; Taylor, Peter J.; Grass, Ingo
In many crops, both pollination and biocontrol determine crop yield, whereby the relative importance of the two ecosystem services can be moderated by the landscape context. However, additive and interactive effects of pollination and biocontrol in different landscape contexts are still poorly understood. We examined both ecosystem services in South African macadamia orchards. Combining observations and experiments, we disentangled their relative additive and interactive effects on crop production with variation in orchard design and landscape context (i.e., cover of natural habitat and altitude). Insect pollination increased the nut set on average by 280% (initial nut set) and 525% (final nut set), while biocontrol provided by bats and birds reduced the insect damage on average by 40%. Pollination services increased in orchards where macadamia tree rows were positioned perpendicular to orchard edges facing natural habitat. Biocontrol services decreased with elevation. Pest damage was reduced by higher cover of natural habitat at landscape scale but increased with elevation. Pollination and biocontrol are both important ecosystem services and complementary in providing high macadamia crop yield. Smart orchard design and the retention of natural habitat can simultaneously enhance both services. Conjoint management of ecosystem services can thus enable the ecological intensification of agricultural production.
What will the future bring? – Socio-economic challenges to herder households in the Great Gobi B strictly protected area in Mongolia
(2024) Michler, Lena M.; Kaczensky, Petra; Batsukh, Daginnas; Treydte, Anna C.
Nomadic pastoralism is still practiced by around one-third of the Mongolian population. Recent socio-economic constraints have challenged pastoral livelihoods and rising livestock numbers threaten overall rangeland health and biodiversity conservation. In the Mongolian Gobi, herder households fully depend on livestock production but little is known about their livelihood trends and potential compatibility with protected area goals. We combined interview data in the Great Gobi B strictly protected area (SPA) with secondary data on regional and national herder households to determine the importance of social networks, willingness to continue a herding lifestyle, and degree of involvement in protected area (PA) management. Our descriptive data confirm that herding is no longer centred on a subsistence lifestyle but rather around cashmere production. Contrary to sustainability goals, especially in protected areas, herder households continue to increase livestock numbers in response to high expenditures in the economic reality of a market economy. We conclude that herders in the Great Gobi B SPA are reaching neither socio-economically nor ecologically sustainable livestock numbers which challenge herders’ livelihoods and PA management alike. We recommend enhancing communication between the PA management and the herding community and increasing participatory conservation activities. National strategies are needed to resolve the current dilemma of increasing livestock numbers to meet livelihood demands and the growing threat to rangeland health.
Correction to: Monitoring soil carbon in smallholder carbon projects: insights from Kenya
(2024) Okoli, Adaugo O.; Birkenberg, Athena
Nomadic by nature – adaptation strategies to ecological and socio-economic change among mongolian herders in the Dzungarian Gobi
(2025) Michler, Lena Maria; Treydte, Anna C.
Worldwide, pastoralism is the most common land use form practiced on extensive rangelands unsuitable for high-yielding agricultural production. For nomadic pastoralists, mobility is a key strategy since centuries to minimize grazing pressure on rangelands while providing nutritious forage resources to their livestock on pastures with high spatial-temporal resource variability. Herder mobility drastically declined in recent years due to changing socio-economic conditions, growing livestock numbers and climate change threating both ecological and socio-economic resilience of pastures and herding communities. In Mongolia, nomadic pastoralism is still practiced by one-third of the population. The country is sparsely populated and around 80% of the land is used for extensive livestock husbandry. While nomadic pastoralism was practiced on a subsistence level for centuries Mongolian herd-ers are nowadays living to the rules of a market economy with cashmere as most important cash crop. As a former satellite state of the Soviet Union, Mongolia initiated a transition to a market economy leading to a privatization of the market following the collapse of the USSR in 1991. Coupled with the international growing demand for cashmere, livestock numbers peaked at 70 million livestock heads in 2019. In combination with climate change, this may have lead to as much as 77% of Mongolia’s land now being considered degraded to a certain extent. My study focused on the Dzungarian Gobi and the rangelands within and around the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area (SPA) in south-western Mongolia. This key biodiversity area is home to several threatened and endangered wildlife and plant species such as the Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus), and the Gobi desert plant Saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron). The habitat is shared by nomadic herders and their livestock (goats, sheep, cows, horses and camels) who seasonally use the pastures within the limited use zone and buffer zone of the Great Gobi B SPA. Rangelands are considered being important social-ecological systems (SES). Therefore, I applied an integrative data analysis framework in my study, combining quantitative environmen-tal data with both quantitative and qualitative socio-economic information. Achieving a deeper understanding of the mobility patterns of nomadic herders and the effects of grazing on Gobi pastures, I collected Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking data of 19 small livestock herds over 20 months. Mobility and flexibility emerged as important adaptive strategies for herder households in the Dzungarian Gobi. Herders in the Dzungarian Gobi adjust their mobility patterns, camp selection, and livestock grazing strategies in response to the spatio-temporal availability of plant biomass, reflecting their adaptation to fluctuating resource availability. Herders changed their camp locations on average 9 times per year, covering a max-imum distance between winter camps in the Gobi plains and summer camps in the Altai moun-tains of 70-123 km. Small livestock spent more than half of the day within a radius of 100 m from camp and livestock use intensity decreased steeply with distance from camp. Available plant biomass and season best explained camp use duration. Daily walking distance and maximum distance from camp increased with camp use duration. Pasture time increased with in-creasing plant biomass and rising temperatures. I combined the GPS data with remotely-sensed environmental and climate data, and ground-based vegetation characteristics. Further, I determined herder preferences for camp selection in different plant communities based on focus group discussion data, and assessed the use and nutrient contents of the most important plant communities. In addition, I analysed plant species richness, vegetation cover, and plant biomass within different grazing radii around herder camps. Herders mainly selected their camp locations in Stipa spp. plant communities with high-est nutritional value. I found little evidence for a corresponding grazing gradient in plant species richness, plant biomass, and cover on the Gobi plains. Understanding the importance of altitudinal migration, I compared climatic conditions along the elevation gradient and determined seasonal body weight changes of goats and sheep. Lower summer temperatures and higher precipitation in the Altai mountains, resulted in higher productivity on summer pastures. Body weight of sheep and goats was slightly higher than the Mongolian average and body mass loss in winter was lower than in other parts of Mongolia. Further, I conducted semi-structured interviews with 125 herder households, three focus group discussions, and two expert interviews with PA rangers, to better understand the socio-economic challenges of herder households, and the interaction of protected area (PA) management and herder households in the Great Gobi B SPA. I combined interview data with secondary data on regional and national herder households to determine the importance of social networks, willingness to continue a herding lifestyle, and degree of involvement in PA management. My descriptive data confirmed that herding is no longer centred on a subsistence lifestyle but rather around cashmere production. Contrary to sustainability goals, especially in protected areas, herder households continue to increase livestock numbers in response to high expenditures in the economic reality of a market economy. I conclude that herders in the Great Gobi B SPA are reaching neither socio-economically nor ecologically sustainable livestock numbers which challenge herders’ livelihoods and PA management alike. Fostering cooperation and communication between herder households in the PA management, I tested paper diaries and small digital cameras as a tool to involve livestock herders as community-based rangers in the Great Gobi B SPA. I report the results of one herder who collected wildlife data over seven months as an example to show that his frequent wildlife sightings provide complementary information to data collected by rangers or scientists. Rising livestock numbers, changing socio-economics, and climate change threaten pasture resources and the resilience of ecosystems and livelihoods dependent on these resources. This thesis provides an overview of Mongolian herders' adaption strategies to ecological and socio-economic change in the Dzungarian Gobi. Although there is only limited evidence of pasture degradation yet, high mobility and flexible pasture use combined with altitudinal migration is still a crucial practice in this system and should be fostered by policy-makers. Considering the effects of climate change and the socio-economic demands on herder households to raise live-stock numbers, efficient pasture management is essential. Long-term environmental evaluations are required both inside and outside the Great Gobi B SPA, to identify changes in pasture eco-systems. Frequent livestock population monitoring and control measures are necessary to avoid overusing pasture resources and competition with wildlife, endangering the conservation of biodiversity and the livelihoods of herders. Through participatory activities, the Great Gobi B SPA management can involve local herder communities in conservation to enhance their understanding and improve communication. While herders in the Dzungarian Gobi have adapted to current ecological and socio-economic changes, it is a national responsibility to supporting herding communities by ensuring mobility, access to markets and social services, and create opportunities for economic diversification.
Design and development of an accessible open-source augmented reality learning authoring tool for applications in agroecological settings
(2024) Shidende, Deogratias; Treydte, Anna
Augmented Reality (AR) has emerged as a transformative educational technology, offering immersive, multisensory learning experiences that enhance engagement, conceptual understanding, and contextualization. In agroecology, where students must grasp complex ecological interactions and context-dependent knowledge, AR can bridge the gap between classroom instruction and field-based learning. However, the creation of AR content remains largely inaccessible to many educators in higher learning institutions (HLIs), particularly those without programming skills and individuals with disabilities such as the deaf and hard of hearing (DHH), and the blind and low vision (BLV). This dissertation addresses the central question: How can an accessible AR learning authoring tool enable non-technical educators and users with disabilities to create AR learning experiences for agroecology education in HLIs? To address this question, the study employed a design-based research (DBR) methodology, integrating Agile Scrum for iterative, inclusive tool development. Seven research questions (RQ1–RQ7) guided the investigation. First, a document-based analysis (RQ1) compared open-source software licenses (OSLs) to determine their suitability for academic–industry collaboration. Permissive licenses (e.g., MIT, BSD) were found to offer more flexibility in code reuse and integration, thereby promoting long-term project sustainability, although they require supplementary legal mechanisms to ensure reciprocity. Next, functional and non-functional software requirements (RQ2) were elicited through stakeholder workshops, interviews, surveys, and accessibility evaluations. These requirements informed the selection and redesign of MirageXR, an open-source AR platform. Key accessibility features were specified for DHH users, such as customizable captioning of audio augmentations, and for BLV users, such as voice navigation and spatial audio cues. These enhancements underscored the dual instructional and assistive roles of AR tools. In response to RQ3, a modular, component-based software architecture was designed using the C4 model. This enabled seamless integration of external services (e.g., 3D object repositories, learning management systems, and automatic speech recognition) and ensured that features could be added or updated without disrupting system stability. This modularity was essential given the evolving nature of AR technologies. The design and implementation phases (RQ4 & RQ5) employed participatory iterative prototyping with user feedback throughout the development process. Accessibility features were integrated into image, audio, and video augmentations, with functionalities such as caption editing, playback speed control, and 3D spatial positioning. These solutions directly addressed gaps in existing AR authoring tools, particularly for DHH and BLV users. The sixth research question (RQ6) investigated usability and applicability through an AR creation workshop involving 24 agroecology educators. Findings revealed that although participants initially encountered difficulties, they gained proficiency over time. UMUX scores showed a correlation between AR experience and perceived usefulness. Participants highlighted AR's potential to visualize complex concepts and engage students in experiential learning. However, limitations in 3D content availability and customization highlighted the need for integrated 3D content creation and editing tools specifically tailored to agroecology. To answer RQ7, the study conducted a systematic literature review of 60 studies to identify current accessibility evaluation methods in AR. Most evaluations employed task-based scenarios, utilizing metrics such as time on task, error rate, and user satisfaction. The study's own evaluation validated that DHH users could independently author AR content using the developed tool. In contrast, BLV users could navigate the authoring functionalities but were unable to fully author AR content, indicating that further design improvements and assistive functionalities are required for full inclusion. Methodologically, this study contributes a novel integration of DBR and Agile Scrum for inclusive educational technology design. This hybrid framework facilitated rapid prototyping, iterative refinement, and participatory co-design, and is recommended for broader application in accessibility-focused educational innovation. Future research should document and validate this methodological approach across additional contexts and user groups. The study makes the following contributions: (1) provision of an open-source, extensible AR authoring interfaces and codebase for public use; (2) improved AR accessibility for AR for DHH and BLV users; (3) development of modular architectural and algorithmic solutions to enable multimodal accessibility; (4) empirical validation of AR’s pedagogical value in agroecology education; and (5) identification of optimal open-source licensing models for collaborative educational software development. In sum, the findings demonstrate that an accessible, open-source AR authoring tool can empower diverse educators, including those with disabilities, to create inclusive and contextually relevant learning experiences. The research affirms the importance of universal design, participatory development, and modularity in educational technology design and concludes with strategic recommendations: integrating AI-assisted 3D content generation, expanding accessibility to additional user groups, and establishing communities of practice to support sustainable AR content development in agroecology.
Influence of climate-smart technologies on the success of livestock donation programs for smallholder farmers in Rwanda
(2024) Kandulu, John M.; Zuo, Alec; Wheeler, Sarah; Dusingizimana, Theogene; Chagunda, Mizeck G. G.
Climate change threatens the livelihoods of Sub-Saharan African farmers through increased droughts. Livestock donation programs offer a potential solution, but their effectiveness under climate stress remains unclear. This study assesses the economic viability of integrating climate-smart technologies (cowsheds and biogas plants) into these programs in Rwanda. Using a stochastic benefit–cost analysis from the beneficiary perspective, we evaluate the net gains for households receiving heifers compared to the current program. Our findings reveal that integrating climate-smart technologies significantly enhances economic viability. Households with cows and climate-smart technologies can possibly realise net benefits 3.5 times higher than the current program, with benefit–cost ratios reaching 5:1. Beyond economic benefits, adopting biogas reduces deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and respiratory illness risks. This study demonstrates that integrating climate-smart technologies into livestock donation programs can generate positive economic, environmental, and health benefits, leading to more resilient and sustainable smallholder systems. However, overcoming implementation challenges requires tailored policy packages addressing local barriers.
Monitoring soil carbon in smallholder carbon projects: insights from Kenya
(2024) Okoli, Adaugo O.; Birkenberg, Athena
Voluntary carbon market schemes facilitate funding for projects promoting sustainable land management practices to sequester carbon in natural sinks such as biomass and soil, while also supporting agricultural production. The effectiveness of VCM schemes relies on accurate measurement mechanisms that can directly attribute carbon accumulation to project activities. However, measuring carbon sequestration in soils has proven to be difficult and costly, especially in fragmented smallholdings predominant in global agriculture. The cost and accuracy limitations of current methods to monitor soil organic carbon (SOC) limit the participation of smallholder farmers in global carbon markets, where they could potentially be compensated for adopting sustainable farming practices that provide ecosystem benefits. This study evaluates nine different approaches for SOC accounting in smallholder agricultural projects. The approaches involve the use of proximal and remote sensing, along with process models. Our evaluation centres on stakeholder requirements for the Measurement, Reporting, and Verification system, using the criteria of accuracy, level of standardisation, costs, adoptability, and the advancement of community benefits. By analysing these criteria, we highlight opportunities and challenges associated with each approach, presenting suggestions to enhance their applicability for smallholder SOC accounting. The contextual foundation of the research is a case study on the Western Kenya Soil Carbon Project. Remote sensing shows promise in reducing costs for direct and modelling-based carbon measurement. While it is already being used in certain carbon market applications, transparency is vital for broader integration. This demands collaborative work and investment in infrastructure like spectral libraries and user-friendly tools. Balancing community benefits against the detached nature of remote techniques is essential. Enhancing information access aids farmers, boosting income through improved soil and crop productivity, even with remote monitoring. Handheld sensors can involve smallholders, given consistent protocols. Engaging the community in monitoring can cut project costs, enhance agricultural capabilities, and generate extra income.

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