Institut für Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre

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Social and economic analysis of the organic sector in Bhutan
(2024) Tshotsho; Lippert, Christian
As in some other low-income countries, organic agriculture (OA) has been introduced in Bhutan and is increasingly being promoted by the state with a top-down approach. While the potential of OA to provide ecosystem services and empower smallholder farmers through market participation is well known, it is also widely recognized that smallholder farmers face many challenges. This thesis discusses the challenges of OA in the case of Bhutanese smallholder farmers and assesses the potential of the farmers' social network to address some of these challenges. What challenges do smallholder farmers face in a top-down approach to OA? What types of social networks are still practiced among smallholder farmers? What potential do social networks have in overcoming the challenges of OA that pose difficulties in implementation? Answering these questions is important because organic farmers report serious challenges that are often neglected by the government in low-income countries. Because farmers are part of a community and embedded in the social structure, a change at the community level can have a huge impact on individual members. The actions of each individual can also have an impact on others, which in turn can affect the overall outcome for the community. Farmers in low-income countries rely on informal network relationships of various kinds as a substitute for the missing or inadequate formal institutions. To assess the potential of farmers' social networks in addressing the challenges of OA, this thesis identifies specific social networks that are characteristic of the farming community and relevant to addressing the challenges of OA for smallholder farmers. This study is based on three main chapters that reflect the main objectives of the overall work: 1) To describe the large-scale conversion of the OA sector in Bhutan and discuss the challenges related to institutional capacity, management and farming practices, nutrient balances and yield gaps, 2) examining informal labor exchanges in farming villages with successful adoption of labor-intensive farming practices and determining the nature of social enforcement mechanisms used, and 3) outlining and testing how two conceptually distinct social mechanisms fit the observed reality of adoption of improved seeds in Bhutanese remote villages. The first chapter takes a descriptive approach, while the second chapter presents an empirical study. The last chapter has a primarily methodological focus. In addition to these three chapters, the relevance of social network in the case of OA and the aims of the thesis are presented in the introductory chapter, and a final chapter contains the major conclusions, limitations and policy implications of the findings. The second chapter, which deals with the first objective, analyzes the feasibility of large- scale conversion to OA in Bhutan. It illustrates that organic farmers must comply with the Bhutan Organic Standard (BOS) and that the number of certified farmers under the Local Organic Assurance System (LOAS) is increasing. The results also show that organic farmers are struggling with low yields, nutrient imbalances in nitrogen, lack of funds to implement organic programs, lack of extension services for OA, and other related institutional inadequacies. The chapter argues that analyzing and understanding the challenges of conversion to OA in Bhutan can lead to transferable findings to similar contexts characterized by smallholder farming systems. The third chapter, which deals with the second objective, examines informal labor exchanges in Bhutanese farming villages that have successfully adopted labor-intensive agricultural practices such as OA. It then tests the existence of social enforcement mechanisms described in the literature by relating the observed network pattern of labor exchange to farmers supposed cooperative behavior. The results show that labor exchange networks in organic farming villages are characterized by a high prevalence of completely connected structures (i.e. triad closure) that seem to constitute the main enforcement mechanism. It discusses how this social network (well-functioning labor exchange) can be used to select further villages for OA implementation in the future. The fourth chapter addresses the third objective and examines how two different forms of social network mechanisms–social contagion (direct communication) and structural equivalence (social standing)–can benefit the dissemination of improved seeds in a wider agricultural community. This study was formulated against the assumption that farmers do not make decisions in isolation and that technology diffusion models with social network considerations provide better explanations and policy guidance. The results provide evidence that an interventionist agricultural policy should not only favor farmers with multiple connections in the hope that their behavior will influence their multiple network partners, but also farmers in different social positions, including peripheral network positions, who can inspire other, less well-connected farmers to adopt. The thesis concludes that considering the potential of farmers’ social networks in solving some of the challenges of OA in low-income countries like Bhutan can open up new avenues of research. The thesis also concludes that a large-scale conversion to OA in Bhutan may be more difficult to accomplish than previously thought, given the evidence of important challenges that are currently neglected. Given the evidence on the role of social networks and how they are still functioning in some remote villages in Bhutan, a bottom-up initiative with additional government support is preferable to the current top-down approach.
Profitability and risk efficiency of arable farming without chemical-synthetic plant protection but with optimized use of mineral fertilizers
(2024) Pergner, Isabell; Lippert, Christian
The use of chemical-synthetic plant protection products (pesticides) in conventional agriculture has been repeatedly criticized in recent years for its negative environmental impacts. Their use can lead to contamination of soil, water, and air, endangering not only biodiversity but also decreasing the quality of drinking water. A potential, more environmentally friendly alternative is organic farming, which abstains from both pesticides and mineral fertilizers. Despite the recognized environmental benefits of organic arable farming, there are some criticisms. For instance, organic farming’s production quantity may be lower compared to conventional agriculture, raising concerns about its ability to ensure food security. An arable farming system without pesticides but with the use of mineral fertilizers represents a middle way between conventional and organic farming. This method uses mineral fertilizers to promote plant growth while abstaining from pesticides. Compared to organic farming, this approach may achieve higher production quantities, contributing to food security, while avoiding the adverse environmental effects of pesticides. This type of agriculture can thus offer a more balanced approach. It is important to explore and promote this alternative arable farming system for a healthier long-term way of arable farming. Hence, the first article in this dissertation provides a comprehensive literature review of the social, economic, and ecological impacts of pesticides and the resulting reasons for farmers to use or abstain from them. It identifies obstacles and potential benefits that could be utilized for developing farming without pesticides but with use of mineral fertilizer. In farming without pesticides, but with mineral fertilizer: (1) yields and their temporal stability are expected to be higher than in organic farming but lower than in conventional farming; (2) profitability might suffer due to energy consumption and high costs; (3) soil fertility and biodiversity are expected to increase along with alternative measures for disease and pest control; (4) crop rotations will more diverse compared to conventional agriculture; (5) optimal plant utilization of mineral fertilizers might not be achieved without balanced nitrogen supply. When farmers choose between different cropping systems, they consider not only expected farm income but also income stability. The lower the total contribution margin variance of a farm, the more stable the income. Income variance can be calculated and included in Quadratic Risk Programming models applying the Expected Value-Variance Criterion when temporal (co-)variances of the contribution margins of individual crops are known. Empirically sound approaches to identify these are lacking. In the second article, we outline a way, from an individual farmer’s perspective, to derive temporal (co-)variances of contribution margins for crops. Neglecting producer price variances and variable costs, it is shown how to estimate temporal crop yield (co-)variances based on available yield data from a long-term field trial at the Julius Kühn Institut in Dahnsdorf (Germany). The four studied cropping systems are (b1) without fertilizer and pesticides; (b2) without fertilizer but with pesticides; (b3) with fertilizer but without pesticides; and (b4) with fertilizer and pesticides. Using a mixed-effects model, a covariance matrix is estimated for yield data of winter rye, winter barley, and peas from 1998 to 2021 for each system. Additionally, we computed means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation for the different yields. The estimated (co-)variances serve as valuable indicators for corresponding orders of magnitude and can be utilized for Quadratic Risk Programming, aiming to optimize a cultivation program while considering preferred risk levels. In the third article, time series data on yields, prices, and variable costs are collected from statistical institutes for several crops grown in conventional agriculture, organic farming, and farming without pesticides, but with mineral fertilizers. Their standard deviations and correlation coefficients are calculated to derive corresponding (co-)variances. These are used for a Monte Carlo simulation providing average contribution margins and their (co-)variances for the considered crops. With this information a hypothetical model farm is constructed. Using Quadratic Risk Programming and considering different risk levels, expected total contribution margins are maximized, resulting in optimal combinations of expected total contribution margin and its variance. Organic farming shows high total contribution margins for optimized crop rotations but also increased variance compared to other cropping systems. The inclusion of cereals in a crop rotation reduces risk, while the inclusion of potatoes and sugar beets raises risk across all systems. The ceteris paribus analysis indicates that implementing conventional crop rotations into other systems leads to unfavorable crop portfolios or even negative total contribution margins. Therefore, optimizing and diversifying the portfolio for each cropping system is crucial. An optimized farming system without pesticides but with mineral fertilizer exhibits lower risk and lower total contribution margin compared to other systems. With rising prices and increased variances, farming without pesticides, but with mineral fertilizers becomes more advantageous, providing a higher total contribution margin while maintaining lower risk compared to optimized conventional crop rotations. In the future, this planning method should be executed using data from farms for an empirically well founded comparison of cropping systems.
Factors influencing the adoption of agricultural machinery by Chinese maize farmers
(2021) Quan, Xiuhao; Doluschitz, Reiner
As the major labor force has shifted from rural areas to cities, labor shortages in agricultural production have resulted. In the context of technical progress impact, and depending on farm resource endowments, farmers will choose effective labor saving technology such as machinery to substitute for the missing manual labor. The reasons behind farmers’ adoption of machinery technology are worth exploring. Therefore, this study uses 4165 Chinese maize farmers as the target group. Multivariate probit models were performed to identify the factors that affect maize farmers’ adoption of four machinery technologies as well as the interrelation between these adoption decisions. The empirical results indicate that maize sowing area, arable land area, crop diversity, family labor, subsidy, technical assistance, and economies of scale have positive effects on machinery adoption, while the number of discrete fields in the farm has a negative impact. Maize farmers in the Northeast and North have higher machinery adoption odds than other regions. The adoption of these four machinery technologies are interrelated and complementary. Finally, moderate scale production, crop diversification, subsidizing agricultural machinery and its extension education, and land consolidation, are given as recommendations for promoting the adoption of agricultural machinery by Chinese maize farmers.
Household food waste quantification and cross-examining the official figures: A study on household wheat bread waste in Shiraz, Iran
(2022) Ghaziani, Shahin; Ghodsi, Delaram; Schweikert, Karsten; Dehbozorgi, Gholamreza; Faghih, Shiva; Mohabati, Shabnam; Doluschitz, Reiner
The global consumer food waste (FW) estimates are mainly based on modeling data obtained from governments. However, a major data gap exists in FW at the household level, especially in developing countries. Meanwhile, the reliability of the existing data is questionable. This study aimed to quantify wheat bread waste (HBW) in Shiraz, Iran, and cross-examine the governmental HBW data. Face-to-face waste recall questionnaire interviews were conducted in 419 households from December 2018 to August 2019. A multistage sampling strategy consisting of stratification, clustering, and systematic sampling was employed. Moreover, we carried out a comprehensive document review to extract and analyze the official HBW data. The results revealed that the HBW in Shiraz is 1.80%—the waste amounts for traditional bread and non-traditional bread were 1.70% and 2.50%, respectively. The survey results were compared with the previous official data, revealing a substantial contradiction with the 30% HBW reported between 1991 and 2015. Possible reasons for this disparity are explored in this paper. Although our results cannot be generalized to other food commodities and locations, our findings suggest that considering the substantial likelihood of bias in the official data, policymakers should conduct more FW measurements and re-evaluate the accuracy of the existing data.
Modellanalyse zu Tierwohl und Wirtschaftlichkeit in der Milchviehhaltung: Bewertung verfahrenstechnischer Maßnahmen und deren ökonomische Auswirkungen
(2023) Gütschow, Paul; Fuchs, Clemens; Louton, Helen; Hess, Sebastian
The welfare of dairy cows is ethically (the animal as an individual) and economically (the animal as a production factor) of high relevance. At the same time, society's growing expectations about good husbandry conditions for dairy cows are increasingly encountering the requirements and framework conditions of modern dairy farming. In the study on animal welfare and economic efficiency, this discrepancy was taken up and examined in more detail based on 28 farms with 46 free-stall barns in north-eastern Germany. The farms were divided into four classes: I < 300 animals, II 300 – 599 animals, III 600 – 900 animals, IV > 900 animals. The status quo on animal welfare was recorded, in the event of deficiencies in the housing conditions, short-term normative measures (additional cubicle care, replacement of the cubicle mat, conversion of the cubicle brackets, etc.) as well as medium-term normative measures (conversion of the lying and walking areas) were derived and the additional costs for improving animal welfare were calculated. In addition, the annual expenses for year-round grazing were calculated. To describe the framework conditions in dairy farming, the development of the husbandry conditions of dairy cows in Germany since 1950 was outlined including essential technical and structural innovations with increasing of bedding-free husbandry methods and year-round barn husbandry from the seventies to today's modern free-stall barn husbandry. Based on this, the current status quo for the animal welfare of highly lactating dairy cows of the Holstein breed in the 46 barns was evaluated and factors influencing the housing environment in the barn on the characteristics of technopathies, contamination (data set D1; 2,082 animals) and lying times (subsample D2; 632 animals) on individual animals were evaluated with the help of statistical tests in two multi-level models (linear mixed model, generalized estimation equations) and decision trees. Regarding technopathies, an assessment was made in five damage classes (0 without special findings, 1 hairless area, 2 skinless area, 3 circumferential increase covered, 4 circumferential increases open). In the survey, technopathies were found in all body regions examined. On average, the following ratings were given carpal joints (0.20), tarsal joints (0.60), knee joints (0.10), and withers (0.30). For the spine, a mean value of 1.20 was recorded. A total of 25.70 % or 535 animals were documented as unharmed (no technopathies) in the study. The aim would be to achieve a proportion of 100 % animals without injuries. Regarding contamination, the assessment was carried out in the score from 1 clean to 6 strong clod formation. The body regions udder, abdomen, tail, tail tassel, hindquarters, cross, ischium and lower leg were rated on average with 2 (isolated, slightly discolored splotches). Deviations from the reference values were recorded for the expression of the lying behavior. On average, the total lying time was 11.60 hours per day (norm 12 to 14 hours), with a lying bout duration of 74.90 minutes (norm 50 to 120 min) and an average number of 10 lying bouts per day (norm 11 to 12). The requirements for the duration of the stay (total lying time, number of lying bouts) were not met on average in the study. Overall, deficiencies can be found in the three areas relevant to welfare of dairy cows (technopathies, cleanliness, lying times). Furthermore, it was investigated to what extent the identified deficits in animal welfare are caused by weaknesses in the barns. For this purpose, the dimensions and condition of the lying, walking, and feeding areas were surveyed. In the barns, 58.70 % of the lying areas were found to be too short (< 182.50 cm); 93.50 % of the lying areas are recorded as too narrow (< 117.50 cm) and in 30.40 % of the deep boxes the fecal level is recorded as too low (< 20 cm). The stall and feeding corridors were documented as too narrow in 45.80 % (< 2.50 m) and 47.80 % (< 3.50 m) of the barns and were also rated as unsafe in 12 out of 46 barns. Furthermore, in 38 out of 45 barns, too low an upper demarcation in the feeding area (< 149 cm) was documented. In the lying area, 22 barns were equipped with high boxes and 26 with deep boxes. In these, deficiencies in the state of care were found. In 54.90 % of the high boxes, less than 50 % of the lying area was covered with bedding. In addition, 68.80 % of the deep boxes showed strong trough formation in the lying surface. In the area of animal comfort, 26 out of 46 barns were equipped with brushes and 25 out of 28 barns with foot baths. The housing conditions in the lying, walking, and feeding areas often show deviations from the reference values with an impact on animal welfare. The clearest effects of the housing conditions on the severity of technopathies, contamination and lying times were recorded in the lying area. Significantly fewer animals without injuries were documented in barns with high boxes (14.70 % animals without technopathies) instead of barns with deep boxes (35.60 % animals without technopathies). In addition, animals in barns with high boxes were recorded with a higher value of contamination instead of barns with low boxes. In barns with narrow lying surfaces (< 117.50 cm), fewer animals without injuries (24.50 %) were found than in barns with wider lying areas (≥ 117.50 cm; 43.10 % without injuries). More animals with total lying times of < 12 hours per day (56 %) were recorded in barns with narrow lying areas than in barns with wider lying areas and a proportion of 27 % of animals with less than 12 hours of total lying time per day. Furthermore, increases in technopathies were observed in the tarsal joints and spine as the length of the lying surface decreased. For the economic evaluation, the investment requirements, the additional labor requirements, as well as the additional costs of grazing were estimated and the average annual costs per animal, as well as the costs per kg of energy-corrected milk (ECM) were calculated. The calculated annual costs for the elimination of deficiencies with an impact on technopathies, contamination and lying times are between EUR 181 and EUR 1,615 per animal p.a. or EUR 0.02 and EUR 0.17 per kg ECM for short- and medium-term normative measures, as well as grazing. The average annual cost of grazing (365 days p.a.) is between EUR 0.02 and EUR 0.08 per kg of ECM. Mostly, the farms incur additional expenses for the pasture in the amount of EUR 0.03 per kg ECM. On average, additional annual expenditure for the improvement of housing conditions of EUR 741 per animal per annum and EUR 0.07 per kg ECM was calculated. In most farms, a conversion of the barns would involve changes in the lying area (e.g., enlargement of the lying area, reduction of the number of cubicles) and a reduction in the number of animals. On average in the study, conversions in the lying area would be associated with a reduction in the number of animals by - 24% and the resulting annual loss of income of EUR 96,622 per farm. The evaluation of the full costs showed that for 37 out of 44 barns, a new building would be associated with lower individual costs than a comprehensive conversion of the barns. The lowest individual costs were found on farms with more than 900 cows. In this study group, the conversion in 5 out of 13 barns or 38 % would be associated with lower individual costs than a new barn construction. The study found that improvements in husbandry conditions are necessary for most of the analyzed farms and entail significant additional costs of EUR 0.07 per kg of milk on average. The high additional costs make it difficult to achieve the goals of animal welfare and economic efficiency in free-stall barns at the same time.
Betriebswirtschaftliche Optimierung des Einsatzes landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren am Beispiel von Traktoren und chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln
(2023) Witte, Felix; Bahrs, Enno
Die deutsche Landwirtschaft befindet sich in einem Spannungsfeld aus beständigem Kostendruck und gleichzeitig steigenden gesellschaftlichen Forderungen nach einer nachhal-tigeren Bewirtschaftungsweise. Dies erfordert eine ständige Optimierung landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren, zu denen auch der Traktoreneinsatz als wesentlicher Teil der Maschinen- bzw. Arbeitserledigungskosten sowie der Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel zählen. Die gesellschaftspolitischen Forderungen nach stärker zu reduz-ierenden Einsatzmengen und Risiken des chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzes schlagen sich in der aktuellen Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik (GAP 2023-2027) der EU nieder. Mit den sogenannten Eco-Schemes werden finanzielle Mittel aus der ersten Säule der gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik an die Erfüllung konkreter umweltorientierter Bewirtschaftungsweisen geknüpft. Eins dieser Eco-Schemes „Bewirtschaftung von Acker- oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ adressiert in Deutschland die Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmittel. Dabei werden bis zu 130 €/ha (2023) ausgezahlt. Solche Wirtschaftsweisen ohne chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel gewinnen perspektivisch an Bedeutung. Der beim Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel als Produktionsfaktor erkennbare dynamische Wandel ist auch beim Traktoreneinsatz erkennbar. Jedoch weniger aus rechtlicher Perspektive, sondern der Bedeutung nach. Dabei gilt: In der Kostenstruktur landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe kommt den Maschinenkosten eine große und wachsende Rolle zu. Die bedeutendste Gruppe innerhalb der Maschinenkosten stellen Kosten für Traktoren dar. Im Gegensatz zu chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln stehen sie in keiner direkten Beziehung zum Naturalertrag. Vor dem Hintergrund von international festgestellten nicht linearen Entwertungsverläufen von Traktoren und einer jüngst auch in deutschen Kalkulationsdaten aufgenommenen stärker leistungsabhängigen Entwertung, auch unterhalb der Auslastungsschwelle, stellt sich die Frage nach daraus folgenden Optimierungspotentialen. Insbesondere könnte die Bedeutung der Beschäftigungsdegression durch einen leistungsbedingten Wertverlust zurückgehen. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit beiden Themenfeldern – chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln und Landmaschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren – vor dem Hintergrund der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung ihres Einsatzes. Sie untersucht zum einen das Entwertungsverhalten von landwirtschaftlichen Maschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren in Deutschland und welche Optimierungspotentiale sowie Empfehlungen sich daraus für landwirtschaftliche Entscheider ergeben. Zum anderen wird untersucht, welche betriebswirtschaftlichen Potentiale sich aus dem Eco-Scheme zur „Bewirtschaftung von Acker oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ am Beispiel einjähriger Ackerkulturen ergeben. Das Entwertungsverhalten der Traktoren wird mit hedonischen Preismodellen auf Basis von Onlineinseraten untersucht. Mittels multipler-linearer Regressionen mit dem transformierten Inseratspreis als abhängiger Variable werden betriebsstunden-, motorleistungs-, fabrikats- und altersabhängige Entwertungsfunktionen geschätzt. Sie deuten an, dass ein linearer Zusammenhang das Entwertungsverhalten von Traktoren nicht vollständig korrekt beschreibt. Die Entwertung folgt einem degressiven Verlauf und unterscheidet sich zwischen den Fabrikaten und Motorleistungsklassen. Die Entwertung ist auch von den Betriebsstunden abhängig. Diese Funktio-nen werden genutzt, um die Ökonomie von Neu- und Gebrauchtkäufen im Rahmen einer Investitionsrechnung zu vergleichen und die Bedeutung des optimalen Ersatzzeitpunktes und der Auslastung zu untersuchen. Mit dem Ergebnis, dass der Gebrauchtkauf vor allem bei niedrigen Auslastungsgraden bis etwa 300 h/a rentabel ist. Bei einer hohen Auslastung von mehr als 900 h/a ist ein Neukauf vorzüglich. Das größte Optimierungspotential liegt in einer möglichst hohen Auslastung. Auch bei einer leistungsbezogenen Entwertungskomponente bleibt also die Beschäftigungsdegression entscheidend für die Optimierung von Maschinen-kosten. Der optimale Ersatzzeitpunkt ist weniger bedeutend. Von ihm kann, meist, um Jahre abgewichen werden, ohne dass die Durchschnittskosten im Modell um mehr als 1% steigen. Außerdem werden in der Arbeit vor dem Hintergrund der Inflation der Jahre 2022 und 2023 und des technischen Fortschrittes die Preissteigerungen von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren gegenübergestellt. Letztgenannter Ansatz verwendet Quantilsregressionen und nutzt Auktionsergebnisse als Datengrundlage. Technischer Fortschritt bzw. dessen Auswirkung auf die Preissteigerung kann bei Traktoren nachgewiesen werden. Der Preisanstieg von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren im Zuge der Inflation ist zumindest in den betrachteten Jah-ren vergleichbar. Die hedonischen Modelle wurden mit einer Befragung flankiert, bei der Preisschätzungen landwirtschaftliche Akteure mit den Modellen verglichen wurden. Die hedonischen Modelle zeigen sich in der Befragung den menschlichen Schätzungen überlegen. Allgemein sollte der Restwert am Ende der angestrebten Nutzung sorgfältig geschätzt werden. Auf diesen kann auch vor dem Hintergrund der Ergebnisse weiterhin im Sinne einer Durchschnittskostenbetrachtung linear abgeschrieben werden. Allerdings sollte die lineare Abschreibung auf eine bestimmte Anzahl von Jahren nicht initial zur Restwertbestimmung genutzt werden. Bei der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung und volkswirtschaftlichen Beurteilung der angestrebten Pflanzenschutzmittel und -risikenreduktion erfolgt ein Methoden- und Empiriewechsel. Anhand einer schlagbasierten und georeferenzierten Landnutzungsmodellierung, die auf linearer Programmierung basiert, wird der Deckungsbeitrag des konventionellen Anbaus von Ackerbaukulturen unter Berücksichtigung von Restriktionen auf kommunaler Ebene maximiert. Verschiedene Preisszenarien und Förderhöhen für das erwähnte Eco-Scheme werden betrachtet. Das Niveau gewünschter Naturalproduktionsmengen und Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit werden variiert, um Elastizitäten der Umsetzungspotentiale aufzuzeigen. Es werden ergänzend verschiedene Pflanzenschutzindikatoren betrachtet, um Aussagen zur ökologischen Wirksamkeit bzw. veränderten Risiken von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln und damit zum Beitrag für die Farm to Fork Strategie ableiten zu können. Demnach weißt das untersuchte Eco-Scheme bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe von 130 €/ha unter der Annahme von konstanter Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und konstanter Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen (gemessen in Getreideeinheiten) ein begrenztes Umsetzungspotential auf. Es beträgt gemäß Modell 12,8% des konventionel-len Ackerlandes in Baden-Württemberg. Legt man ein Produktpreisszenario auf dem erheblich höheren Niveau des Frühjahres 2022 zu Grunde, sind es nur 4,3%. Bei gelockerten Restriktionen für die Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und die Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen steigt das Umsetzungspotential an. Der Rückgang verschiedener Pflanzenschutzindikatoren fällt gegenüber dem Umsetzungspotential geringer aus. So geht beispielsweise die insgesamt eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse im beschriebenen Basisfall um 4,4% zurück. Der Effekt des Eco-Scheme auf die eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse und andere Pflanzenschutzindikatoren ist zumindest bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe gering. Die Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes kann insbesondere in Sommergetreidearten und auf ertragsschwachen Standorten rentabel sein. In Zuckerrüben und Kartoffeln kommt es bei der angestrebten Höhe der Förderung faktisch zu keinem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel. Eine höhere Förderung als 130 Euro/ha würde zu Mitnahmeeffekten führen und einen trade-off zwischen der Effek-tivität der Reduktion und ihrer Kosteneffizienz darstellen. Für eine Implementation pflanzenschutzmittelfreier Anbauverfahren auf landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben muss beachtet werden, dass der Arbeitskraftbedarf durch die Umsetzung steigen wird. Eine Handlungsempfehlung für die Politik ist somit nicht ausschließlich, das Prämienniveau zu erhöhen, sondern eine nach Kulturen abgestufte Förderung zu erwägen. Limitationen der vorliegenden Ergebnisse ergeben sich aus den verwendeten Daten, Annahmen und der Methodik. Onlineinserate von Traktoren stellen keine echten Verkaufsvorgänge dar. Allerdings zeigen sie enge Zusammenhänge zu Auktionsergebnissen. Beim Eco-Scheme sind insbesondere die ange-nommenen Ertragsverluste durch den Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutz-mittel mit Unsicherheit behaftet. Das verwendete Landnutzungsmodell unterstellt einen ra-tionalen und risikoneutralen Gewinnmaximierer. Auch wenn das Modell sinnvolle Einblicke in ökonomische Aspekte und Potentiale des Pflanzenschutzmittelverzichtes liefert, kann es landwirtschaftliche Entscheider nicht vollständig abbilden, zumal die Betrachtung die Betriebsebene ausklammert. Dies zeigt sich daran, dass die reale Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes deutlich unter den vom Modell erwarteten Werten zurückbleibt. Ein Forschung-sansatz für die Zukunft ist, die Betriebsebene in die Landnutzungsmodellierung zu integrieren, um Aussagen über Landnutzungssysteme mit ganzheitlichem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel zu ermöglichen. Obwohl sich die Arbeit auf zwei Produ-tions- und damit Kostenfaktoren der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion beschränkt, ist die Betrachtung beider Themenfelder von nicht zu unterschätzender Bedeutung, insbesondere im Arbeitsalltag von Landwirten. Die Ergebnisse sind aber auch für politische Entscheider relevant. Dies zeigt sich gegenwärtig bei der Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln.
Valorization for biodiversity and ecosystem services in local food value chains - Status quo and future options
(2023) Voglhuber-Slavinsky, Ariane; Bahrs, Enno
Neben dem Klimawandel und dem Bevölkerungswachstum ist der Verlust an Biodiversität ein zentrales Thema für die Landwirtschaft als unmittelbar betroffener Bereich, aber verbunden durch die Wertschöpfungsströme auch für das gesamte Agrarsystem. Letzteres umfasst nicht nur die Lieferkette, sondern auch wertschöpfende Prozesse bis hin zum Konsumenten und darüber hinaus weitere Stakeholder wie Zertifizierungsstellen, Behörden etc. aber auch Schnittstellen wie den Energie- oder Gesundheitssektor. Die physische Verortung des Biodiversitätsschutzes bzw. der Biodiversitätsförderung ist allerdings auf die landwirtschaftliche Bewirtschaftung sowie auf den Naturschutz beschränkt. Daher wird oft die Aufgabe des Schutzes der Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen alleinig der Landwirtschaft zugerechnet. Die Verknüpfung aller Akteure im Agrarsystem ist allerdings notwendig, um einen effektiven Biodiversitätsschutz zu gewährleisten. Das zunehmende Augenmerk auf die Biodiversität als essentiellen Bestandteil eines funktionierenden Agrarsystems in den letzten Jahrzehnten hat allerdings nicht dazu geführt, dass die Akteure des Agri-Food-Systems ihre individuelle Verantwortung für den Biodiversitätsschutz erkannt haben. Zahlreiche Bemühungen wie die Archi targets, die Nationale Strategie zur biologischen Vielfalt oder das Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz auf deutscher Ebene haben ihr Ziel verfehlt. Mitunter ist die Tatsache, dass Biodiversität als Gemeingut (common good) in der Regel nicht eingepreist wird und so in wertschöpfenden Prozessen nicht darstellbar ist, ein Grund für das mangelnde Engagement der Akteure. Im Themengebiet der Forschung zur Biodiversität liegt das Hauptaugenmerkt auf der physischen Erfassung sowie auf der Übersetzung dieser Beobachtungen in Zahlenwerte im Zuge einer Integration in bestehende Wertschöpfungsprozesse. Um an dieser Stelle die Verknüpfung konsequent bis hin zum Konsumenten (zivilgesellschaftlich, unternehmerisch) weiterzuziehen, ist es allerdings notwendig, unterschiedliche Optionen der Inwertsetzung zu erörtern, um Zahlungsbereitschaften oder andere Formen der Wertschätzung zu generieren. Es ist daher notwendig, übergeordnete Ziele wie die Archi targets und konkrete Maßnahmen – auch lokaler Natur – miteinander zu verknüpfen. Der Vorteil lokaler Ansätze liegt darin, dass sich Akteure vor Ort besser verpflichten lassen und das Engagement höher ist als bei abstrakteren überregionalen oder gar internationalen Maßnahmen. In Kapitel 4 der Arbeit wird daher die Integration von "lokalen" Maßnahmen zur Förderung eines lokalen Lebensmittelsystems in Szenarien für den Europäischen Food Sektor dargestellt. Außerdem ist die Quantifizierung oder auch der Einfluss auf die Biodiversität nicht nur unter derzeitigen Rahmenbedingungen, sondern auch unter zukünftigen zu bewerten. So wird in Kapitel 3 dargestellt, wie sich die Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt eines landwirtschaftlichen Produkts entlang seines Lebenszyklus gegenüber unterschiedlichen alternativen Entwicklungen darstellen. Die Implementierung von Biodiversität als Umweltbelastungskategorie (environmental impact category) in eine Ökobilanz (Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) ist noch nicht weit verbreitet, stellt aber eine Möglichkeit für die anschließende Inwertsetzung dar. Die in den Szenarien dargestellten Rahmenbedingungen spiegeln zudem die gesellschaftliche Ausrichtung wider und dienen so dazu, soziale Aspekte in die Bewertung der umweltbezogenen Vorteilhaftigkeit von Produkten indirekt einfließen zu lassen. Folglich sind auch die Inwertsetzungsoptionen hinsichtlich ihrer Passfähigkeit mit unterschiedlichen zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen zu untersuchen. Dieser Ansatz wird in Kapitel 2 untersucht. Auch hier werden durch die Integration von Szenarien soziale Aspekte mitberücksichtigt. Dies kann zu einer besseren Beurteilung der Akzeptanz von Inwertsetzungsoptionen beitragen. Die vorliegende Arbeit soll daher darstellen, wie Maßnahmen zum Schutz der Biodiversität sowie von Ökosystemleistungen und die monetäre und nicht-monetäre Wertschätzung für die Erbringung dieser Leistungen zusammengeführt werden können. In diesem Zusammenhang ist vor allem die Interaktion verschiedener Akteure entlang der Wertschöpfungskette relevant, um den bestehenden Fokus auf die Agrarproduktion auf weitere Akteure auszudehnen. Die gegenwärtige Betrachtung wird zudem mittels Foresight-Methoden um einen vorrausschauenden Aspekt erweitert. In Ergänzung zur zeitlichen Perspektive wird räumlich, ausgehend von lokalen Wertschöpfungsketten, auch der internationale Kontext des Agri-Food Systems betrachtet. Das Kapitel 2 analysiert konkrete Inwertsetzungsoptionen für Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette mit einem Fokus auf private Optionen. Es werden dabei monetäre und nicht-monetäre Optionen untersucht, sowie ein Überblick gegeben, welche Inwertsetzungsoptionen heute bestehen und auch unter zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen bestehen können. Darüber hinaus wurde das DPSIR-Framework für die Analyse der privaten Inwertsetzungsoptionen angewendet, wobei diese als Responses klassifiziert wurden, sowie eine rechtliche Bewertung vorgenommen. Ein Bewertungsinstrument, das für eine darauffolgende Inwertsetzung genutzt werden kann, ist das Life Cycle Assessment. Dieses nicht nur für die gegenwärtigen Bedingungen anzuwenden, sondern auch unter Berücksichtigung zukünftiger Rahmenbedingungen ist Inhalt des Kapitels 3. Konkret wird das Zukunftspotential einer Technologie unter zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen untersucht und in der LCA als Veränderung im Backgroundsystem sichtbar gemacht. Hierzu wurden mithilfe von Literaturrecherchen und Experteninterviews die qualitativen Annahmen aus den Szenarien in Veränderungen der Werte des Life Cycle Inventories übersetzt. Dieses Vorgehen ermöglicht es, zukünftige Rahmenbedingungen zu antizipieren und die gegenwärtigen Handlungen besser gegenüber Unsicherheiten auszurichten. Kapitel 4 befasst sich in erster Linie mit der Verknüpfung des lokalen und internationalen Kontextes in Form von lokalen Maßnahmen und Umfeldszenarien zum Europäischen Agri-Food Sektor. Zudem wird in diesem Kapitel auch die zeitliche Perspektive betrachtet, indem die Passfähigkeit der lokalen Maßnahmen zur Erhöhung des Anteils lokaler Lebensmittel an der Gesamtversorgung gegenüber zukünftigen Entwicklungen geprüft wird. Das in diesem Kapitel gewählte Vorgehen diente als Grundlage für die Prüfung der Robustheit von Inwertsetzungsoptionen gegenüber zukünftigen Entwicklungen in Kapitel 2. Zudem dient das hierin vorgestellte Konzept des Agri-Food Systems dazu, Inwertsetzungsoptionen von Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen entlang der gesamten Wertschöpfungskette zu verorten, um so ein größeres Portfolio an Möglichkeiten sichtbar zu machen, als dies bei einer Fokussierung auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktion allein der Fall wäre. Die methodische Kombination von bereits existierenden Rahmenwerken ist eine gute Möglichkeit der Mehrfachnutzung von wissenschaftlichen Ergebnissen zur Generierung neuer Ergebnisse. Dies wird nicht nur in Kapitel 4 deutlich, sondern trifft auch auf die Ergebnisse in Kapitel 3 zu. Hier wird quantitative und qualitative Forschung mittels Literaturrecherche und einer Experteneinschätzung kombiniert. Darüber hinaus zeigt Kapitel 2, dass die Einordnung der unterschiedlichen Ansätze von Inwertsetzungs-optionen sinnvoll durch eine interdisziplinäre Betrachtung ergänzt werden können. Die Erläuterung der rechtlichen Konsequenzen bzw. die systemische Analyse (DPSIR) der Inwertsetzungsoptionen liefert relevante Rückschlüsse für die Praxis und ist übertragbar auf andere Forschungsvorhaben. Als Herausforderung im Kontext der Inwertsetzung von Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen (BES) erweist sich die Tatsache, dass die Verantwortung für den Schutz von BES vorrangig der Landwirtschaft zugerechnet wird. Diese ist mit ihrer naturräumlichen Verflechtung naturgemäß Hauptakteur, wenn es um die konkrete physische Implementierung von Maßnahmen geht. Sie ist aber nicht alleinig für die Initiierung und Ermöglichung verantwortlich. Es ist daher notwendig, alle Akteure entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette zu animieren, ihren Beitrag für den Schutz von BES zu leisten. Darüber hinaus sind viele Möglichkeiten der Inwertsetzung auf bestimmte örtliche Gegebenheiten ausgerichtet, wie zum Beispiel informierte und interessierte Anwohner, und können so nur bedingt auf andere Konstellationen übertragen werden. Diese Kleinteiligkeit der Ansätze erschwert es, eine einfache Übertragung von Konzepten sicherzustellen. Des Weiteren gib es keine einheitliche Definition von Inwertsetzungsoptionen zum Erhalt von BES, was die Zuordnung und die Kommunikation bestehender Initiativen erschwert. Es ist daher anzustreben, Best-Practice Beispiele zu kommunizieren, sowohl in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur als auch im internationalen und nationalen Governancebereich bis zu den Konsumenten. Dabei ist darauf zu achten, dass regionale Besonderheiten herausgestellt werden und somit Bewusstsein für die Notwendigkeit der Anpassung geschaffen wird. Die Definition des Begriffs Inwertsetzung (valorization) in Abgrenzung von der reinen Bewertung (valuation) ermöglicht es, die Ansätze herauszustellen, die die Maßnahmenumsetzung mit konkreten Akteuren und deren Wertschätzung verbinden. Die vorliegende Arbeit deutet den Nutzen digitaler Vernetzung an, beispielsweise für die Rückverfolgbarkeit von unter bestimmten Rahmenbedingungen hergestellten Produkten oder einer besseren Raumplanung im Zusammenhang mit Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von BES. Dieser Aspekt sollte in zukünftiger Forschung vertieft werden und hinsichtlich seiner rechtlichen Konsequenzen beleuchtet werden. Ein entscheidender Punkt wird darüber hinaus die Akquirierung von Akteuren entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette sein. Es gilt in weiteren Inwertsetzungsoptionen die Einbindung dieser zu verstärken und somit einen systemischen Ansatz zum Erhalt und zur Förderung von BES zu verfolgen.
Markups and export behavior: Firm‐level evidence from the French food processing industry
(2022) Jafari, Yaghoob; Koppenberg, Maximilian; Hirsch, Stefan; Heckelei, Thomas
The relationship between a firm's markups and its export behavior is highly relevant to individual firms' strategic decisions as well as to governments' policies regarding competition. We investigate the impact of markups on firms' decisions to export and resulting export intensity in the French food processing industry. Moreover, we assess the effect of entry into and remaining in the export market on firms' markups and evaluate differences in markups between exporters and non‐exporters. Our results suggest that higher markups lead to both increased participation in the export market and greater export intensity. In addition, we find that firms obtain higher markups by entering and remaining in the export market. Finally, our results suggest that exporters generate higher markups, on average, than non‐exporters. Similar results are found when controlling for differences in firms' productivity. Our findings suggest that trade policies designed to increase firms' participation in export markets, such as limits to border restrictions, may counteract domestic competition policies targeted at price–cost margins.
Identifying loss and waste hotspots and data gaps throughout the wheat and bread lifecycle in the Fars province of Iran through value stream mapping
(2023) Ghaziani, Shahin; Dehbozorgi, Gholamreza; Bakhshoodeh, Mohammad; Doluschitz, Reiner
Reducing wheat and bread loss and waste is crucial for ensuring global food security and sustainability. The importance of reducing wheat and bread loss is particularly significant in Iran, where wheat is a staple crop and a vital component of the country’s food security. A value stream mapping study was conducted to identify loss and waste hotspots and critical data gaps along the wheat and bread lifecycle (WBL). In October 2018, 14 experts were surveyed in Fars province, Iran’s second-largest wheat producer. The study presents a detailed cradle-to-grave overview of WBL and identifies farms, foodservice, and households as the loss and waste hotspots. The results revealed significant data gaps regarding on-farm wheat loss and household bread waste. Additionally, although data exist in other segments of WBL, they are not readily accessible nor utilized to report loss and waste, highlighting the need for transparency within the WBL system and further research to compile existing data and analyze wheat and bread loss and waste. Other researchers can employ the holistic approach of the present study to investigate loss and waste throughout the lifecycle of other food items in different geographical contexts. The methodology adopted in this study offers advantages for defining the scope of research in lifecycle assessment and circular economy studies.
Unraveling on-farm wheat loss in Fars province, Iran: A qualitative analysis and exploration of potential solutions with emphasis on agricultural cooperatives
(2023) Ghaziani, Shahin; Dehbozorgi, Gholamreza; Bakhshoodeh, Mohammad; Doluschitz, Reiner
Given wheat’s global significance as a primary food crop, and its importance in providing essential nutrition to millions of people worldwide, reducing on-farm losses is crucial to promoting food security, sustainable agriculture, and economic stability. Wheat plays a critical role in food security in Iran, as it is a staple food consumed daily by a large proportion of the population, and is also a vital component of the country’s food self-sufficiency policy. The present study aims to identify the causes and extent of on-farm wheat loss in Fars province, a major wheat-producing area in Iran. Nine experts were interviewed, using open-ended questions, in October 2018. The study revealed that a considerable amount of wheat is lost due to seed overuse, pest infestation, and improper harvesting. The paper discusses the underlying factors associated with these over-arching causes, and highlights their adverse environmental, economic, and societal impacts. The paper also explores potential approaches to take in addressing the issue, and suggests empowering agricultural cooperatives through changes in the government’s engagement with wheat production. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders which are useful for developing effective strategies to reduce on-farm loss, particularly in countries where intensified farming is promoted. These strategies may include limiting the government’s central control and, instead, empowering agricultural cooperatives, as well as adopting supportive approaches, such as improving farmers’ access to proper machinery, and enhancing their sovereignty and freedom.
Weiterentwicklung von Kennzahlen der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebslehre für das steuerliche Bewertungsrecht und die Analyse von Bodenmärkten
(2023) Back, Hans Walter; Bahrs, Enno
Die Land- und Forstwirtschaft ist ein besonderer Teil der Volkswirtschaft, da sie essentielle und nicht substituierbare Nahrungsmittel und Rohstoffe bereitstellt. Die landwirtschaftliche Produktion interagiert durch die Nutzung natürlicher Prozesse und Ressourcen mit der Umwelt. Beispielsweise ist sie ein bedeutender Bodennutzer. Dies sind einige Gründe für ein öffentliches und staatliches Interesse an den Entwicklungen in der Landwirtschaft, das sich auch auf den ökonomischen Bereich erstreckt. Aus agrarpolitischen Erwägungen und um gesellschaftlich erwünschte Ziele zu erreichen, existieren neben Eingriffen in die Agrar- und Bodenmärkte für die Landwirtschaft auch Sonderregelungen und spezifische Vorgaben in weiteren Bereichen wie dem Steuerrecht. Die (steuer-)rechtlichen und regulatorischen Vorgaben werden veränderten wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen angepasst und beeinflussen die ökonomische Situation der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe, Haushalte und der Volkswirtschaft. Daher benötigen politische Akteure zur Planung, Entscheidung und Evaluierung qualitative und quantitative Informationen zur ökonomischen Wirkung der jeweiligen Maßnahmen oder Instrumente. Weiterhin ist die Land- und Forstwirtschaft Gegenstand der Besteuerung und muss von anderen Steuertatbeständen abgegrenzt und mit angepassten Methoden bewertet werden. In beiden Fällen werden die Daten einzelner Unternehmen wie z. B. aus dem betrieblichen Rechnungswesen benötigt, können jedoch aufgrund ihres Umfangs nicht immer in ihrer originären Form verwendet werden. Folglich müssen die Informationen aufbereitet und verdichtet werden. Ein methodischer Ansatz sind Kennzahlen, die betriebswirtschaftlich relevante Sachverhalte in kompakter und standardisierter Form darstellen. Die Übertragung in andere Anwendungsgebiete außerhalb individueller betriebswirtschaftlicher Überlegungen, aber auch veränderte Rahmenbedingungen erfordern eine Anpassung und Weiterentwicklung der Kennzahlen an die konkrete Fragestellung. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist ein Beitrag zur Weiterentwicklung der methodischen Ausgestaltung und zu den Anwendungsmöglichkeiten von betriebswirtschaftlichen Kennzahlen in zwei exemplarischen Anwendungsfeldern – der Analyse des landwirtschaftlichen Bodenmarktes und dem steuerlichen Bewertungsrecht. Der landwirtschaftliche Bodenmarkt in Deutschland ist seit etwa 15 Jahren durch einen starken Preisanstieg und das Auftreten neuer Marktakteure gekennzeichnet. Dies hat eine Debatte über die Notwendigkeit und Ausgestaltung regulatorischer Eingriffe in den Bodenmarkt zum Schutz der Landwirtinnen und Landwirte ausgelöst. In Kapitel 2 dieser Arbeit wird anhand der Kennzahl Grundrente geprüft, ob die Kaufpreisentwicklung durch die landwirtschaftliche Ertragsfähigkeit abgebildet wird und des Weiteren diskutiert, was weitere Referenzen für Überpreise im Kontext des Grundstückverkehrsrechts sein können. Dabei zeigen die Auswertungen von Testbetriebsdaten, dass die kapitalisierten Grundrenten der besseren Betriebe auch aufgrund niedriger Zinssätze dem Niveau der Kaufpreise entsprechen. Generelle Überpreise liegen somit nicht vor, wenngleich dies vereinzelt oder regional nicht auszuschließen ist. Die kapitalisierte Grundrente stellt jedoch aufgrund methodenimmanenter Unsicherheiten keine geeignete Referenz für agrarpolitisch motivierte Interventionen dar. Der Referenzwert kann sich am Bodenrichtwert orientieren, auch wenn dieser die Preisentwicklung verzögert abbildet. Die durchschnittliche Betriebsgröße ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten angestiegen. Ein weiteres Argument für eine erweiterte Regulation sind die befürchteten Auswirkungen von Konzentration und Ungleichverteilung bei Bewirtschaftung und Bodeneigentum. Zu den angedachten Maßnahmen zählen auch Beschränkungen für Kauf- und Pachtinteressenten mit überdurchschnittlichen Marktanteilen in regionalen Bodenmärkten. In Kapitel 3 werden Vorschläge zur Messung von Konzentration in der Bewirtschaftung anhand verschiedener Disparitäts- und Konzentrationsmaße auf Basis einzelbetrieblicher Daten dargestellt. In Deutschland ist eine Disparität der Flächenbewirtschaftung und in einigen Regionen auch eine deutliche Konzentration auf größere Betriebe feststellbar. Daher wird in Kapitel 4 der Zusammenhang zwischen Konzentration und den Bodenpreisen (Bodenrichtwerten) mit Hilfe eines hedonischen Preismodells analysiert, um daraus Empfehlungen für agrar- bzw. bodenpolitische Maßnahmen abzuleiten. Neben weiteren landwirtschaftlichen und nichtlandwirtschaftlichen Einflussfaktoren auf die Bodenrichtwerte werden räumliche Autokorrelationen auf Ebene der Gemeinden berücksichtigt. Trotz unterschiedlichem Niveau der Flächenkonzentration bestätigt sich ein negativer, aber regional unterschiedlich ausgeprägter Zusammenhang zwischen Disparität sowie Konzentration und den Bodenrichtwerten für die Bundesländer Thüringen, Rheinland-Pfalz und Nordrhein-Westfalen. Auch wenn Konzentration wettbewerbsrechtlich problematisch sein kann, könnte sie zu einer politisch intendierten Preisdämpfung führen. Da der kausale Zusammenhang, dass Bewirtschaftungskonzentration zu niedrigeren Bodenpreisen führt, methodisch nicht nachweisbar ist, könnten niedrige Preise, ökonomischer Erfolg und Pfadabhängigkeit auch Gründe für Konzentration sein. Eine formal definierte Berücksichtigung von Konzentration in Form von absoluten Eigentums- und Bewirtschaftungsgrößen bei einer veränderten Bodenmarktregulierung erscheint nicht sinnvoll, zumal das allgemeine deutsche Marktmachtkonzept auf konkret abgegrenzte Märkten fokussiert, für die relative Maße bedeutender sind. Für die Agrarpolitik besteht weiterhin eine Diskrepanz zwischen geforderter Regulation, ihrer Notwendigkeit und unerwünschten Nebeneffekten, was weiteren Forschungsbedarf bei der Aufklärung der Wirkungszusammenhänge auf dem Bodenmarkt hin zu einer umfassenden Theorie impliziert. Das zweite exemplarische Anwendungsfeld befasst sich mit dem steuerlichen Bewertungsrecht im Bereich der Landwirtschaft. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat mit Urteil vom 10.04.2018 den Einheitswert als bisherige Bemessungsgrundlage der Grundsteuer aufgrund veralteter Bewertungsrelationen für verfassungswidrig erklärt, sodass der Gesetzgeber die Grundsteuer mit dem Grundsteuer-Reformgesetz auch für die Landwirtschaft neu regelte. Dabei wurde zum einen die Abgrenzung der landwirtschaftlichen Wohnbebauung zur Grundsteuer B neu eingeführt, was vielfältige bundeslandspezifische Bewertungsmaßstäbe zur Folge hat. Zum anderen wurde die Bewertungsmethodik für den bisherigen Wirtschaftsteil aktualisiert. Nicht novelliert wurde dagegen die veraltete Abgrenzung der landwirtschaftlichen zur gewerblichen Tierhaltung anhand der Kennzahl Vieheinheit, was auch für die Ertragsbesteuerung relevant ist. Die bestehende Vieheinheiten-Systematik bildet die Tierhaltung nicht mehr sachgerecht ab. Kapitel 5 zeigt daher Optionen zur Aktualisierung dieser Abgrenzung sowie exemplarische Auswirkungen für die Tierhalter. Bei einer linear bundeseinheitlichen Viehbesatzgrenze könnten etwa 2,5 (neue) Vieheinheiten bzw. Milchkühe je ha landwirtschaftlich gehalten werden. Diese Grenze kann nach Ackerland und Dauergrünland getrennt und auf regionaler Ebene differenzierter ermittelt werden. Von den Novellierungsoptionen profitieren Veredlungsbetriebe (Schweine und Geflügel) sowie flächenstarke Betriebe. Das folgende Kapitel 6 analysiert und diskutiert vor allem die Bewertungsmethodik der novellierten Grundsteuer, die im Kontext der Landwirtschaft weiterhin ein Ertragswertverfahren vorsieht. Mit der durch das Gesetz neu entwickelten Kennzahl des standardisierten Reinertrags wird ein in der Landwirtschaft nicht mehr realistischer pacht- und schuldenfreier Betrieb unterstellt. Eine sachlogisch nicht nachvollziehbare zusätzliche Reduktion der Lohnansätze anhand der Nettorentabilität verursacht systematische Verzerrungen und Überbewertungen, die vermutlich durch eine entsprechend angepasste Steuermesszahl annähernd ausgeglichen werden. Aufgrund der jüngsten und auch zukünftig zu erwartenden Schäden im deutschen Wald wird eine aktualisierte Bewertung für den Forst vorgeschlagen. Diese Anpassung ist mittlerweile, nach Einreichung und Annahme des entsprechenden Beitrags, auch erfolgt. Für das steuerliche Bewertungsrecht wäre die skizzierte Optimierung der Ertragsbewertung zu begrüßen. Eine Novellierung der Abgrenzung anhand der Vieheinheiten ist dagegen sowohl für die Grundsteuer als auch für die Ertragsbesteuerung dringend zu empfehlen und würde die zukünftige Perspektive der landwirtschaftlichen Tierhaltung mitgestalten. Insgesamt zeigen die Kapitel dieser Arbeit, dass betriebswirtschaftliche Kennzahlen auch zu nicht ausschließlich betriebswirtschaftlichen Fragestellungen einen Beitrag zum Erkenntnisgewinn leisten können. Bedeutend ist eine methodisch korrekte, an die Problematik angepasste und aktuelle Ermittlung. Durch die Informationsverdichtung ermöglichen Kennzahlen einen schnellen Zugang zu wirtschaftlichen Zusammenhängen und tragen zu verbesserten agrarpolitischen Entscheidungen sowie einer gerechteren Besteuerung bei.
Analysis of the impact, costs and acceptance of lapwing plots as a protection measure for farmland birds in Germany
(2023) Buschmann, Christoph; Lippert, Christian
Biodiversity in the agricultural landscape is declining in the European Union (EU) including Germany. This trend is also observed for farmland bird populations that are used as an important indicator of overall species diversity. Among farmland birds, the Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is an indicator species whose population has been particularly affected. Populations suffer inter alia from frequent cultivation measures and degraded habitat quality on agriculturally used land. To improve the status of farmland bird populations, appropriate measures are called for both in the EU and on German national level in different strategy papers. The European Commission has set the concrete target to increase farmland bird populations by 30 % until 2050. Despite the high demand to plan the implementation of biodiversity strategies, literature provides little guidance for farmland birds, i. e. ex-ante modelling of how many protection measures and how much compensation are needed to achieve certain time-bound conservation targets. The thesis addresses this research gap by analysing the impact of the conservation measure ‘lapwing plot’. Lapwing plots are fallow sections within arable fields that can be used as feeding areas and - during the breeding season - provide cover for the chicks from predators. In detail, the thesis pursues three objectives: First, to project how much lapwing plot provision is required to meet specific time-bound conservation targets on a national level by using a spatially explicit population viability analysis (PVA). Second, to calculate the corresponding costs based on implementation and opportunity costs (i. e. gross margins forgone) for compensating farmers who participate in a lapwing plot agri-environmental scheme (AES). For this, the PVA is combined with an economic analysis. Third, to analyse the acceptance of a lapwing plot AES by surveying farmers with a discrete choice experiment (DCE). PVA results show that the lapwing population in Germany could decline from 70.000 breeding pairs in 2006 to 12.000 or 23.000 pairs (depending on model assumptions) in 2055 if no further conservation measures were taken and land use remained stable. To achieve the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission for the lapwing, 30 % or 65 % of the breeding pairs need to be protected by a lapwing plot in arable land or a comparably effective measure in grassland. The corresponding costs for protection on arable land range from on average 1.1 to 5.6 million € per year depending on model assumptions. Costs may, however, be reduced by up to 52 % with a regionally focused economic optimisation. Since AES participation is voluntary, acceptance is of crucial importance. The DCE conducted to analyse acceptance considers different design options if the lapwing plot were introduced as an AES and identifies possible drivers and inhibitors of farmers’ participation. Remarkably, those design options which ensure that the AES can be co-financed by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), i. e., a participation period of five years and the nature of the relevant sanctions regime, are a particular acceptance barrier. However, so far EAFRD - as part of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) - has been the most important funding instrument for AESs. Therefore, the thesis outlines how the lack of EAFRD acceptance could be addressed in the new CAP period 2023-2027 and points out alternative funding instruments. In conclusion, the lapwing plot is - according to the PVA results - a suitable measure to meet conservation objectives, such as the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission, if it is implemented to a sufficient extent. However, it is questionable whether a sufficient extent of implementation can be achieved if the lapwing plot is put into practice relying on voluntary AES with the available funding instruments and limited budgets. This would require a high level of acceptance among farmers in the affected regions. Therefore, the lapwing plot needs to be combined with other conservation approaches including the expansion of protected areas and in-field measures, such as the reduced use of fertilisers and pesticides. For policy makers, it is recommended to develop combined solutions in overall strategies and perform corresponding ex-ante modelling. For such strategies the thesis provides an important basis and with the PVA a suitable expandable model.
Understanding and addressing food loss and waste : a multidimensional analysis of wheat loss and bread waste in Iran
(2023) Ghaziani, Shahin; Reiner, Doluschitz
Food loss and waste (FLW) is a global issue with significant environmental and economic consequences, threatening food security. Reports show that 14% of global food production is lost in production and supply chains, while 17% is wasted at the consumption stage. Despite this, theres a lack of knowledge, especially in developing countries like Iran, facing challenges due to sanctions, environmental issues, and water scarcity. This doctoral study focuses on FLW in Iran, adopting a lifecycle approach, with wheat and wheat bread in Fars province as the main focus. The research aims to quantify and analyze food waste, identify hotspots, enhance quantification methods, and explore causes and solutions. The study includes mapping the wheat lifecycle, analyzing loss and waste factors, and proposing interventions. Data collection involves surveys and a laboratory experiment. The first survey in October 2018 used value stream mapping to overview the wheat and bread lifecycle. It identified farms, foodservice establishments, and households as major hotspots, revealing data gaps. The second survey, from December 2018 to August 2019, focused on household bread waste (HBW) in Shiraz. The survey involved 419 households and included a self-assessment questionnaire, a food frequency questionnaire for dietary data collection, and a socioeconomic status section. Findings led to three articles. The third article addressed underestimation in self-assessment methods using a lab experiment, improving accuracy. A lab experiment simulated common consumption recipes and measured resulting waste. Comparing the lab results with HBW estimates from the questionnaire survey, the article presents underestimation ratios ranging from 1.24 to 1.80. The fourth article reveals HBW in Shiraz at 1.80%, with traditional bread waste at 1.70% and non-traditional bread waste at 2.50%. However, these percentages do not consider the underestimation inherent in the self-assessment method. Adjusting for underestimation within this study population, traditional bread waste increases to 3.06%, and non-traditional bread waste rises to 3.58%. Outdated data from previous Iranian reports was highlighted. The final article uses multiple regression modeling to predict HBW based on household dietary patterns and socioeconomic scores. It emphasizes the need for consumer-focused interventions to address household food waste effectively, such as developing FLW reduction policies targeting specific consumers grouped based on waste-related characteristics. In conclusion, the dissertation provides a comprehensive analysis of wheat loss and bread waste in Iran, offering insights into environmental, economic, and food security implications. It guides improvements in agricultural productivity, farmer cooperation, and consumer-focused strategies for sustainable consumption. The research contributes methodological advancements and informs decision-making for reducing wheat loss and bread waste, fostering responsible production and consumption.
The adoption of agricultural machinery and its economic impacts in China
(2023) Quan, Xiuhao; Doluschitz, Reiner
In modern agriculture, machinery plays an important role to substitute manual labor and to improve productivity and economic performance of farm households. Conventional agricultural machinery in crop production includes tractors, cultivators, tillers, combine harvesters, pumps, threshers, planters, fertilizer spreaders, seeders, etc. In recent years, as an innovative agricultural machinery, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been adopted in precision agriculture for crop monitoring and crop spraying. However, factors influencing Chinese farmers’ adoption of agricultural machinery and the economic impacts of the adoption have not been adequately studied, especially regarding farm machinery in maize production and UAVs in precision agriculture. In addition, there is limited literature that systematically summarizes the use of UAVs in maize production. The development of UAV-based pattern management in Chinese agriculture and the prerequisites for adopting and implementing this approach remain unclear. By utilizing farm household data, qualitative methods, and econometric quantitative methods, this dissertation aims to (i) identify the factors influencing the adoption of farm machinery and UAVs by Chinese farmers; (ii) estimate the economic impacts of adopting farm machinery and UAVs; (iii) provide an overview of UAV applications in maize production; (iv) study the prerequisites for adopting and implementing UAV-based pattern management in Chinese agriculture; (v) outline and recommend policy instruments to promote the use of farm machinery and UAVs in China. The empirical results indicate that the determinants of farm machinery adoption and UAV adoption can be attributed by three major aspects: farmer characteristics (e.g., age, education level, and perceptions about agricultural machinery), farm characteristics (e.g., farm size, land fragmentation, and cooperative membership), and other external socio-economic factors (e.g., subsidies, technical assistance, and labor shortages). The adoption of farm machinery and UAVs has shown significantly positive economic effects. However, the effects vary among farm household types due to the heterogeneous farm characteristics and socio-economic conditions. Farm machinery use significantly increased maize yield by 0.216 tons/ha and improved labor productivity by 18.65%. Young, male, and better-educated farmers benefit more from adopting farm machinery, and farms located in plain regions with cooperative membership and rented land can gain higher economic benefits from machinery use. In addition, the impacts of farm machinery adoption on maize yield and labor productivity slightly decrease with farm size. The adoption of UAVs in pesticide application significantly increased revenue and reduced the time spent on pesticide application by approximately 434-488 USD/ha and 14.4-15.8 hours/ha, respectively. In terms of marginal revenue and marginal time spent on pesticide application, the optimal area for using UAVs in pesticide spraying is estimated to be 20 hectares of arable land, suggesting that small and medium-scale farmers are the main beneficiaries of UAV adoption. For the wide application of UAV-based pattern management in precision agriculture, certain socio-economic and technical prerequisites are necessary. These include farmers possessing adequate UAV-related capabilities, relatively large farm sizes, availability of UAV-related subsidies, and superior UAV performance. Balancing the pros and cons, the effective promotion of farm machinery in maize production and UAVs in precision agriculture requires the establishment of a comprehensive socio-economic institution. This institution should integrate strategies from both the public and private sectors such as the implementation of land consolidation, the establishment of agricultural machinery cooperatives for benefit-risk sharing, the provision of practical training and education on agricultural machinery, and subsidies for the purchase of agricultural machinery. Due to the heterogeneous effects of farm machinery adoption and UAV adoption, it is necessary to develop customized extension services tailored to various types of farm households to prevent inequity among farmers.
Towards sustainable chemical fertilizer management in China : from theory to farm household
(2023) Yu, Xiaomin; Doluschitz, Reiner
Over the past few decades, China’s grain production has expanded drastically. On the one hand, this has eliminated food shortages and allowed China to feed its huge and still growing population. On the other hand, the rapid growth in grain productivity has come at a heavy cost. Excessive fertilizer use has led to a variety of negative consequences that threaten national food security and environmental sustainability. Since the 2010s, the Chinese government and academia have made considerable efforts to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers and improve nutrient management. These include a wide range of regulations to control or guide chemical fertilizer use, policies to eliminate subsidies for the fertilizer industry, and nationwide promotion of scientific fertilizer application methods. In response to these efforts, Chinas overall fertilizer application rate has been declining since 2016. However, China still applies far more fertilizers than its crops need, and the current crop Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) and Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE) in China are both below the global average. Therefore, reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers for crop production and sustainably feeding a large population remains a key challenge for China. This dissertation aims to contribute to sustainable nutrient management in China by providing a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of fertilizer use and management at the national, regional, farm and household levels. In the first study (Chapter 2), a systematic review of the historical development and current status of chemical fertilizer use and management in China at the national level is presented. In addition, fertilizer nutrient surpluses are estimated for 30 provinces in China and the regional and temporal variations are visualized. In the second study (Chapter 3), the relationship between fertilizer nutrient surpluses and the regional economy at the provincial level is examined within the framework of the Environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. A panel cointegration approach is employed, using time-series data from 1988 to 2019. In the third study (Chapter 4), the research focus is further narrowed to the farm household resolution. Using cross-sectional survey data from 774 maize-growing farms in northern China in 2019, the study investigates the role of farm characteristics, farmers knowledge, perceptions, and socioeconomic context in farmers fertilizer use strategies. The studies confirm that by 2021, China has reached zero growth in fertilizer use and fertilizer nutrient surpluses at the national and regional level. However, regions with a high proportion of cash crops, such as the southeast coast and northwest, still suffer from high nutrient surpluses. Furthermore, in circa 2012, China has reached its EKC turning point between fertilizer nutrient surpluses and GDP per capita. With further economic growth, the fertilizer surpluses in most Chinese provinces will decrease, indicating a moderating of the tension between economic development and the environment. Looking at the farm and household level, the study shows that in northern China, small farms are more likely to overuse fertilizers in maize cultivation without further yield improvement. Current extension programs have had a positive impact on farmers’ fertilizer use strategies and environmental awareness; nevertheless, the coverage and effectiveness of trainings should be improved. In summary, the dissertation identifies the following key factors that impede sustainable chemical fertilizer management in China: small farm size; regional economic dependence on cash crops; the large discrepancy between farmers practices and scientific production guidelines; and the shrinking and aging of Chinas rural labor force. To address these aspects, the dissertation proposes recommendations at the national strategic level, policy level and implementation level, respectively. The findings and recommendations of this dissertation can serve as a robust decision support and scientific basis for policy makers, stakeholders and researchers in the field of sustainable nutrient management in China.
Sustainability assessment and education for sustainability in the Russian Federation on the example of Tambov region
(2021) Bezgin, Anna; Doluschitz, Reiner
Over the past few decades economic growth has come at the expenses of the environments and the topic of sustainable development is becoming more important. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The main aim of this dissertation was to investigate the available methodologies of sustainability assessment and to test which of them could be suitable for Russian conditions. Russia is an interesting subject for research as, it has its own history of sustainability science, but quite often the commitment to sustainable development is only in rhetoric and there are some problems with the interpretation of the concept of sustainable development. For example, in Russian official documents the term sustainability is used as a synonym for stable economic growth. The focus of the research was a creation of an indicator system for a regional sustainability assessment on the example of Tambov region of the Russian Federation. At the first stage of the research a regional assessment was performed with the help of the United Nations set of sustainable development indicators, SWOT analysis was performed to identify the main strengths and problems in the region. Also, the availability of statistical data and relevancy for the research region of the indicators was checked. During the next stage of the research a composite indicator was created using different techniques for normalization of indicator and weighting. Then robustness and sensitivity analysis of created indicators was performed, the results were visualised, and composite indicators were decomposed to explain the drivers of the aggregated results. The result of this work has shown that composite indicators together with regional assessment on the base of sustainability indicators are the tools that could support policymakers in sustainability decision-making. There are some problems with the availability of the statistical data in Russia, and there is no monitoring mechanism at the federal district level and lack of coordination with work of statistical agencies. This research is confirming a necessity of further research, and a need to develop a monitoring and assessment system in Russian Federation. The second part of the research was devoted to education for sustainable development. UNESCO is stressing that the approach of Education for Sustainable Development empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations, and therefore education is playing a crucial role in reaching sustainability (UNESCO, 2017). The aim of this research was to see how the sustainability topics are integrated into the curriculum of the agricultural universities, to define the sources of integration and research possible problems and formulate the recommendations for strengthening the integration. To research the education for sustainable development in Russia first a literature review was conducted, followed by 16 semi-structured interviews with the representatives of 8 universities. The research confirmed the fact that sustainability is present as a topic in the official documents, for example educational standard, but this mention remains only rhetorical and does not provide the background for the establishment of a framework for integration of sustainability concept. As a result, the integration into education is mostly driven by the personal initiative of the teaching staff. There is a clear demand for an integration framework of sustainability topics in the federal state educational standard. The main problems are uncoordination and competition between departments and ministries, overload of teachers, lack of best-practices, absence of system in the education and limited financing. These problems could be mitigated with creation of interdepartmental centres, creation of interdisciplinary working groups, creation of a systematic concept of education for sustainability and involvement of different stakeholders into educational projects, but the success of these measures depends on the general approach and if the importance of sustainability will be present only in official documents, then there will be no shift in integration, and everything will depend only on individual initiative of teachers.
Discrete Choice Experimente zur Analyse des Entscheidungsverhaltens von Landwirten am Beispiel von Vorkaufsrechten für landwirtschaftliche Nutzflächen und Ertragsversicherungen
(2022) Moog, Kristina; Bahrs, Enno
Farmers in Germany are currently facing new challenges, which require operational adaptation and associated decisions. As a result of climate change, extreme weather events are occurring with increasing frequency, which can damage or even destroy agricultural harvests. For this reason, farmers are faced with the decision of whether and how they can protect their crops from damaging events and which instruments are best suited for this purpose. However, the increasing prices on the farmland market and the associated appearance of non-agricultural investors on the farmland market also mean that land can become more expensive for farmers. The possibility of privileging farmers towards investors in the form of pre-emptive rights, which is being discussed politically in this context, is an instrument for shaping the farmland market. This outlines the focus of this work, which is to examine the decision-making behaviour of farmers in connection with these exemplary current challenges and to determine what willingness there is on the part of farmers to pay or accept certain solutions for overcoming these decision-making challenges and what benefits these solutions have for farmers. Discrete choice experiments are used for this purpose, in which the farmers surveyed are confronted with (fictional) decision-making situations in which the preferred alternative is to be chosen from several alternatives. These alternatives are described by different attributes and levels, which are systematically varied over the entire experimental design. Subsequently, different models can be used to estimate the benefit of individual attributes and the willingness to pay or willingness to accept. Therefore, a discrete choice experiment was developed to investigate the decision-making behaviour of farmers when registering pre-emptive rights, to determine the benefits of individual pre-emptive rights attributes and the willingness-to-pay for these attributes. The results,show, that the majority of the farmers surveyed preferred to choose one of the two pre-emptive rights over the status quo. I.e. farmers derive a benefit from pre-emptive rights and show a willingness-to-pay for pre-emptive rights to farmland, both of which depend on the characteristics of the pre-emptive right, but also on the personal and operational situation of the respondent. Due to the complexity of the issue of pre-emptive rights, another discrete choice experiment was conducted to analyse the decision-making behaviour of the owners of farmland affected by pre-emptive rights. Based on the sample chosen, only owners of farmland who are farmers themselves were interviewed. Here, too, the aim is to estimate the benefits and the monetary willingness-to-accept for pre-emptive rights, this time on the part of the affected farmland owners. However, it also becomes clear that there is a monetary willingness-to-accept this, i.e. that a compensation payment is expected from the entitled party for the granting of pre-emptive rights. As in the previous studies, the benefit as well as the willingness-to-accept strongly depends on the char¬acteristics of the pre-emptive right and the personal and farm situation of the respondents. Finally, another discrete choice experiment was conducted among orchardists and vintners in Baden-Württemberg. The subject of the study is the decision-making behaviour of the orchardists and vintners surveyed regarding the conclusion of state-subsidised crop insurance policies to protect against damage due to extreme weather events. The creation of the discrete choice experiment is based on a pilot project introduced in 2019 by the state of Baden-Württemberg to promote crop insurance against extreme weather-related damage in orcharding and viticulture. Here, too, the majority of respondents decide to take up subsidised crop insurance and show a willingness to pay for crop insurance. This decision is influenced by the characteristics of the crop insurance, but also by the previous risk management of the surveyed farms. Summing up all the analyses carried out, it can be said that farmers face up to the challenges currently arising, deal with the possible solutions and, within the framework of discrete choice experiments, decide by majority in favour of these solutions and thus against the status quo.
Akzeptanz, Status quo und Entwicklung der Digitalisierung entlang der genossenschaftlichen agro-food Wertschöpfungskette
(2022) Munz, Jana; Doluschitz, Reiner
Within the first subject area (I. Status quo and development of digitalization in German agriculture) in one publication presented in this dissertation, the model of Porter and Heppelmann (2014) was taken up and further developed to empirically capture the status quo of digitization in German agriculture. Using a cluster analysis, the farmers participating in the survey could be assigned to two specific development stages. 58.2 % of the respondents were assigned to the second development stage of "users of smart products". 41.8 % of the respondents could be classified as "users of smart, connected products", among whom the use of complex systems that connect individual mechanical and electrical components are particularly widespread. Thus, it could be determined that German farms have not yet reached the level of "smart farming" and also not the level of "product systems". The nature of the use of FMIS in terms of widespread use of web-based applications, automatic digital data entry and, above all, the use of universal data standards were identified within the study as the greatest obstacles on the way to achieving "smart farming". Digitzation is also presented as a prerequisite for future economic performance and survival for cooperatives, with rural cooperatives in particular facing increasing competitive pressure due to structural change processes, ongoing transformation processes through digitization and the emergence of new competitors. According to the current state of knowledge, the topic of digitization in rural cooperatives has not been examined yet and is now, for the first time, the focus of scientific studies within the second subject area of this dissertation (II. Acceptance, status quo and development of rural cooperatives in the context of digitization). Two publications first shed light on the determinants of acceptance factors for the use of digital technologies among rural cooperatives. The first study presented here is based on the identification and analysis of acceptance factors regarding the use of internet-based information systems (IS) along the cooperative value chain of the red meat industry from the perspective of farmers or members/customers of a livestock marketing cooperative. Three benefit-generating factors regarding the expected use of internet-based IS could be identified as valid acceptance factors: the support in documentation and an obligatory exchange of data towards administrative bodies (B2A); the inter-farm data exchange between farmer and livestock marketing company/slaughterhouse (B2B); the function of integrating external data into the IS. Another study focuses on the intermediary level of German agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives from the perspective of the managing directors, with the three acceptance factors relating to the expected use of digital technologies in the business areas of procurement and logistics, customer/member management, and marketing being identified as having a beneficial effect. Personnel and financial factors as well as strategic and operational factors were identified as the greatest challenge on the way to implementing digital technologies. Opportunities arising from membership of the cooperative network therefore need to be exploited in a targeted manner to address challenges and jointly mitigate risks. Overall, it was possible to demonstrate that there is an "attitudinal acceptance" of the introduction of digital technologies at the level of primary production and the intermediate level of agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives. In the course of the analyses, the determinant of the size of the cooperative or farm could be attributed as a positive influence on the acceptance of digital technologies. The final paper presented as part of this dissertation makes a contribution with regard to identifying the status quo of digital technology adoption in agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives and derives opportunities for a digital differentiation for these cooperatives. Based on a cluster analysis, the cooperatives could be assigned to the cluster of "Basic Adopters" (n=48) and "Advanced service-oriented Adopters" (n=18). Against the backdrop of ongoing cut-throat competition and the findings obtained in the present studies, it is recommended that agricultural trade cooperatives consider an individually tailored differentiation strategy and, to this end, build up concrete digital competencies with an increased service orientation in order to adapt their business model or business processes to current industry developments.
Voraussetzungen und Umsetzungsmöglichkeiten sowie ökonomische Auswirkungen von Kompensationsmaßnahmen gemäß BNatSchG in der Landwirtschaft in Ballungsräumen am Beispiel der Region Stuttgart
(2021) Sponagel, Christian; Bahrs, Enno
Land take due to urbanisation has a major local and global impact on the natural balance, that are to be compensated for in many countries around the world. In Germany, this kind of impacts are to be compensated for according to the Impact Mitigation Regulation pursuant to Article 13 of the German Nature Conservation Act. In addition to land take for an intervention, such as a building site, additional land is required for the implementation of offset measures. Especially in expanding urban areas, where land scarcity is a problem, offsetting can exacerbate land use conflicts. Agriculture, in particular, is one key stakeholder in the context of offsetting. On the one hand, agricultural land, especially intensively used arable land, offers considerable potential for nature conservation enhancement. On the other hand, agriculture is also characterised by its considerable spatial impact. There is also a need for improvement in the compensation process from the point of view of nature conservation, as there are often deficits in the maintenance and implementation of measures. Existing instruments such as eco-accounts or so-called production-integrated compensation, a form of cooperation between nature conservation and agriculture, have so far been poorly established. The present study, therefore, analyses offset activities with a focus on agriculture in urban areas, drawing more particularly on the example of the Stuttgart Region. Chapters 2 and 3 of the study focus on the analysis of individual farms. In addition to in-depth interviews with farms, Chapter 2 provides a spatial analysis of agricultural land take for offset purposes using the example of the neighbouring cities of Stuttgart and Filderstadt. The insights gained are applied in Chapter 3 to analyse the acceptance of offset measures using a discrete choice experiment (DCE). In Chapter 3 the DCE is conducted with farmers in and outside the Stuttgart Region. In Chapter 4, the offset potential is determined using the example of arable land in the Stuttgart Region with the help of a geodata-based land use model. Within Chapter 5 different offset scenarios at regional level are analysed. To this end, data on the estimated offset needs of the municipalities in the Stuttgart Region up to 2030 were furnished by the Verband Region Stuttgart. They are used for modelling, and the results of the DCE from Chapter 3 are incorporated. Chapter 6 addresses the regional bundling and networking of production-integrated compensation measures with the help of expert-based maps. Using geodata, a spatially differentiated assessment is carried out from an agricultural and nature conservation perspective. The aim here is to identify areas that offer the greatest possible potential for synergies between agriculture and nature conservation in conjunction with offset measures. The spatial analysis shows that agriculture is disproportionately affected by land loss in the context of the intervention regulation compared to other land uses. Furthermore, the results show that agriculture generally accepts voluntary offset measures although this very much depends on the type of measure and legal safeguard. The results also show a considerable potential for offset measures on agricultural land, although there are strong spatial disparities in terms of costs, especially between the centre of an urban area and the peripheral areas, as demonstrated by the example of the Stuttgart Region. Consequently, the spatially unrestricted implementation of compensation can lead to a polarisation between the core of the region with therefore just a few ecologically beneficial, landscape-enhancing offset measures and the peripheral areas with numerous ecologically beneficial, landscape-enhancing offset measures. Moreover, the developed expert-based maps show that synergies are possible between agriculture and nature conservation on a significant scale. Offset measures can thus contribute to ecological sustainability in agricultural landscapes and are a relevant business option for farms. There are major challenges when it comes to communication between agriculture and authorities or municipalities: ensuring understanding and transparency in terms of the market for offset measures, and assessing the nature conservation enhancement of production-integrated compensation measures. In addition, the various forms of legal safeguard in connection with the determination of the legally prescribed care and maintenance period must be more clearly specified and communicated in the future. Voluntary or eco-accounting measures, in particular, should be used more intensively, as they allow for forward planning.
Success factors of farm investments : the example of Swiss dairy farms
(2021) Kramer, Benedikt; Doluschitz, Reiner
This scientific analysis aims to identify success factors of farm investments, which are supported by interest free loans. The data basis consists of data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) from 2003 through 2014 from Switzerland, which is matched to data from the Meliorations- und Agrarkredit-Projekt-Informations-System (MAPIS), where all supported dairy barn investments in Switzerland are registered. In addition, a Gini coefficient on the level of municipality is added, calculated from agricultural census data (AGIS). One of the main variables analysed is calculated profit. Another important variable, analysed in this work, is herd size. As a first step, the development of calculated profit and herd size change after investment are analysed by two separate fixed-effects panel regression models. The results show, that calculated profit is significantly and positively influenced by the amount of agricultural land of the farm and significantly reduced for the first three years after investment. From the fourth year onwards, no coefficients are significant anymore, which might either be caused by a divergent development of individual farms or by the diminishing number of observations. Herd size change is positive and significantly influenced by the amount of agricultural land. Also the period of quota phasing out affected herd size change positively. Dairy herds probably grew in the year before investment already and kept growing till five years after investment. Both dependent variables indicate that farms undergo an adjustment phase after investment. For the analysis of investment probability, the data sample is extended by including observations of all dairy farms and combined dairy/arable crop farms in the valley and hill region. Observations after investment are excluded. A logit regression model of the pooled data reveals that among the financial variables, only equity and farm income have a small positive and significant effect on investment probability. Social characteristics show a larger effect. The investment probability increases with age, farm household size and the presence of a partner. In order to analyse influencing factors of successful investments, investments that enable the farm to achieve the same or higher calculated profit as before, are considered successful. The year before investment is used as the basis and a Cox Proportional-Hazard-model is used to investigate those influencing factors. The model reveals that for farm having a higher calculated profit before investment, it is more difficult to restore that level after investment. Off-farm income and expenses for purchase of additional animals affect recovery of calculated profit significantly negative. The largest significant negative impact comes with more family labour. The results suggest that family labour which is likely to be freed up by productivity gains, is not reallocated to off-farm income. Additional indicators for land competition on the level of municipality are used. Agricultural income per family working unit is analysed as financial measure. This is a precursor for calculated profit and reflects financial efficiency of the input of family labor. In addition, growth of the dairy herd is analyzed. A random effects model is used for both variables. For dairy herd growth, utilized agricultural area and milk quota abolishment have a positive effect. More subsidized projects within a municipality and a higher concentration of acreage have a negative effect. For agricultural income per family working unit, utilised agricultural area, number of subsidized projects within a municipality, valley region and equity have a positive effect while milk quota abolishment has a negative effect. Off-farm income, which has been used as off-farm income per full-time working unit, showed no statistically significant effect. Neighboring effects appear to be more important for dairy herd growth than for agricultural income. Based on the derived definitions, success factors are identified. An adjustment phase is confirmed, while the productivity of family labour seems to be the most important influencing factor for recovering calculated profits of the pre-investment situation. Structural influences seem most important for herd size growth. With regard to the negative effect of off-farm labour, off-farm labour might be seen as enabling farms with off-farm labour to accept a lower level of labour productivity. In general, the social characteristics of farms seem to have a larger impact on dairy farm investments than financial variables. For investment support, the results imply not only to put emphasis on financial characteristics. In addition, the adjustment phase must be considered with investment plans. With such long lasting investments like dairy barns, strategic decisions by the farmer combined with family characteristics might be more important than financial indicators.

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