Institut für Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre

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Betriebswirtschaftliche Optimierung des Einsatzes landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren am Beispiel von Traktoren und chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln
(2023) Witte, Felix; Bahrs, Enno
Die deutsche Landwirtschaft befindet sich in einem Spannungsfeld aus beständigem Kostendruck und gleichzeitig steigenden gesellschaftlichen Forderungen nach einer nachhal-tigeren Bewirtschaftungsweise. Dies erfordert eine ständige Optimierung landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsfaktoren, zu denen auch der Traktoreneinsatz als wesentlicher Teil der Maschinen- bzw. Arbeitserledigungskosten sowie der Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel zählen. Die gesellschaftspolitischen Forderungen nach stärker zu reduz-ierenden Einsatzmengen und Risiken des chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzes schlagen sich in der aktuellen Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik (GAP 2023-2027) der EU nieder. Mit den sogenannten Eco-Schemes werden finanzielle Mittel aus der ersten Säule der gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik an die Erfüllung konkreter umweltorientierter Bewirtschaftungsweisen geknüpft. Eins dieser Eco-Schemes „Bewirtschaftung von Acker- oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ adressiert in Deutschland die Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmittel. Dabei werden bis zu 130 €/ha (2023) ausgezahlt. Solche Wirtschaftsweisen ohne chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel gewinnen perspektivisch an Bedeutung. Der beim Einsatz chemisch-synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel als Produktionsfaktor erkennbare dynamische Wandel ist auch beim Traktoreneinsatz erkennbar. Jedoch weniger aus rechtlicher Perspektive, sondern der Bedeutung nach. Dabei gilt: In der Kostenstruktur landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe kommt den Maschinenkosten eine große und wachsende Rolle zu. Die bedeutendste Gruppe innerhalb der Maschinenkosten stellen Kosten für Traktoren dar. Im Gegensatz zu chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln stehen sie in keiner direkten Beziehung zum Naturalertrag. Vor dem Hintergrund von international festgestellten nicht linearen Entwertungsverläufen von Traktoren und einer jüngst auch in deutschen Kalkulationsdaten aufgenommenen stärker leistungsabhängigen Entwertung, auch unterhalb der Auslastungsschwelle, stellt sich die Frage nach daraus folgenden Optimierungspotentialen. Insbesondere könnte die Bedeutung der Beschäftigungsdegression durch einen leistungsbedingten Wertverlust zurückgehen. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit beiden Themenfeldern – chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln und Landmaschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren – vor dem Hintergrund der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung ihres Einsatzes. Sie untersucht zum einen das Entwertungsverhalten von landwirtschaftlichen Maschinen am Beispiel von Traktoren in Deutschland und welche Optimierungspotentiale sowie Empfehlungen sich daraus für landwirtschaftliche Entscheider ergeben. Zum anderen wird untersucht, welche betriebswirtschaftlichen Potentiale sich aus dem Eco-Scheme zur „Bewirtschaftung von Acker oder Dauerkulturflächen des Betriebes ohne Verwendung von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln“ am Beispiel einjähriger Ackerkulturen ergeben. Das Entwertungsverhalten der Traktoren wird mit hedonischen Preismodellen auf Basis von Onlineinseraten untersucht. Mittels multipler-linearer Regressionen mit dem transformierten Inseratspreis als abhängiger Variable werden betriebsstunden-, motorleistungs-, fabrikats- und altersabhängige Entwertungsfunktionen geschätzt. Sie deuten an, dass ein linearer Zusammenhang das Entwertungsverhalten von Traktoren nicht vollständig korrekt beschreibt. Die Entwertung folgt einem degressiven Verlauf und unterscheidet sich zwischen den Fabrikaten und Motorleistungsklassen. Die Entwertung ist auch von den Betriebsstunden abhängig. Diese Funktio-nen werden genutzt, um die Ökonomie von Neu- und Gebrauchtkäufen im Rahmen einer Investitionsrechnung zu vergleichen und die Bedeutung des optimalen Ersatzzeitpunktes und der Auslastung zu untersuchen. Mit dem Ergebnis, dass der Gebrauchtkauf vor allem bei niedrigen Auslastungsgraden bis etwa 300 h/a rentabel ist. Bei einer hohen Auslastung von mehr als 900 h/a ist ein Neukauf vorzüglich. Das größte Optimierungspotential liegt in einer möglichst hohen Auslastung. Auch bei einer leistungsbezogenen Entwertungskomponente bleibt also die Beschäftigungsdegression entscheidend für die Optimierung von Maschinen-kosten. Der optimale Ersatzzeitpunkt ist weniger bedeutend. Von ihm kann, meist, um Jahre abgewichen werden, ohne dass die Durchschnittskosten im Modell um mehr als 1% steigen. Außerdem werden in der Arbeit vor dem Hintergrund der Inflation der Jahre 2022 und 2023 und des technischen Fortschrittes die Preissteigerungen von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren gegenübergestellt. Letztgenannter Ansatz verwendet Quantilsregressionen und nutzt Auktionsergebnisse als Datengrundlage. Technischer Fortschritt bzw. dessen Auswirkung auf die Preissteigerung kann bei Traktoren nachgewiesen werden. Der Preisanstieg von neuen und gebrauchten Traktoren im Zuge der Inflation ist zumindest in den betrachteten Jah-ren vergleichbar. Die hedonischen Modelle wurden mit einer Befragung flankiert, bei der Preisschätzungen landwirtschaftliche Akteure mit den Modellen verglichen wurden. Die hedonischen Modelle zeigen sich in der Befragung den menschlichen Schätzungen überlegen. Allgemein sollte der Restwert am Ende der angestrebten Nutzung sorgfältig geschätzt werden. Auf diesen kann auch vor dem Hintergrund der Ergebnisse weiterhin im Sinne einer Durchschnittskostenbetrachtung linear abgeschrieben werden. Allerdings sollte die lineare Abschreibung auf eine bestimmte Anzahl von Jahren nicht initial zur Restwertbestimmung genutzt werden. Bei der betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierung und volkswirtschaftlichen Beurteilung der angestrebten Pflanzenschutzmittel und -risikenreduktion erfolgt ein Methoden- und Empiriewechsel. Anhand einer schlagbasierten und georeferenzierten Landnutzungsmodellierung, die auf linearer Programmierung basiert, wird der Deckungsbeitrag des konventionellen Anbaus von Ackerbaukulturen unter Berücksichtigung von Restriktionen auf kommunaler Ebene maximiert. Verschiedene Preisszenarien und Förderhöhen für das erwähnte Eco-Scheme werden betrachtet. Das Niveau gewünschter Naturalproduktionsmengen und Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit werden variiert, um Elastizitäten der Umsetzungspotentiale aufzuzeigen. Es werden ergänzend verschiedene Pflanzenschutzindikatoren betrachtet, um Aussagen zur ökologischen Wirksamkeit bzw. veränderten Risiken von chemisch-synthetischen Pflanzenschutzmitteln und damit zum Beitrag für die Farm to Fork Strategie ableiten zu können. Demnach weißt das untersuchte Eco-Scheme bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe von 130 €/ha unter der Annahme von konstanter Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und konstanter Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen (gemessen in Getreideeinheiten) ein begrenztes Umsetzungspotential auf. Es beträgt gemäß Modell 12,8% des konventionel-len Ackerlandes in Baden-Württemberg. Legt man ein Produktpreisszenario auf dem erheblich höheren Niveau des Frühjahres 2022 zu Grunde, sind es nur 4,3%. Bei gelockerten Restriktionen für die Arbeitskräfteverfügbarkeit und die Bereitstellung von Naturalerträgen steigt das Umsetzungspotential an. Der Rückgang verschiedener Pflanzenschutzindikatoren fällt gegenüber dem Umsetzungspotential geringer aus. So geht beispielsweise die insgesamt eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse im beschriebenen Basisfall um 4,4% zurück. Der Effekt des Eco-Scheme auf die eingesetzte Wirkstoffmasse und andere Pflanzenschutzindikatoren ist zumindest bei der aktuellen Förderhöhe gering. Die Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes kann insbesondere in Sommergetreidearten und auf ertragsschwachen Standorten rentabel sein. In Zuckerrüben und Kartoffeln kommt es bei der angestrebten Höhe der Förderung faktisch zu keinem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel. Eine höhere Förderung als 130 Euro/ha würde zu Mitnahmeeffekten führen und einen trade-off zwischen der Effek-tivität der Reduktion und ihrer Kosteneffizienz darstellen. Für eine Implementation pflanzenschutzmittelfreier Anbauverfahren auf landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben muss beachtet werden, dass der Arbeitskraftbedarf durch die Umsetzung steigen wird. Eine Handlungsempfehlung für die Politik ist somit nicht ausschließlich, das Prämienniveau zu erhöhen, sondern eine nach Kulturen abgestufte Förderung zu erwägen. Limitationen der vorliegenden Ergebnisse ergeben sich aus den verwendeten Daten, Annahmen und der Methodik. Onlineinserate von Traktoren stellen keine echten Verkaufsvorgänge dar. Allerdings zeigen sie enge Zusammenhänge zu Auktionsergebnissen. Beim Eco-Scheme sind insbesondere die ange-nommenen Ertragsverluste durch den Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutz-mittel mit Unsicherheit behaftet. Das verwendete Landnutzungsmodell unterstellt einen ra-tionalen und risikoneutralen Gewinnmaximierer. Auch wenn das Modell sinnvolle Einblicke in ökonomische Aspekte und Potentiale des Pflanzenschutzmittelverzichtes liefert, kann es landwirtschaftliche Entscheider nicht vollständig abbilden, zumal die Betrachtung die Betriebsebene ausklammert. Dies zeigt sich daran, dass die reale Umsetzung des Eco-Schemes deutlich unter den vom Modell erwarteten Werten zurückbleibt. Ein Forschung-sansatz für die Zukunft ist, die Betriebsebene in die Landnutzungsmodellierung zu integrieren, um Aussagen über Landnutzungssysteme mit ganzheitlichem Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Pflanzenschutzmittel zu ermöglichen. Obwohl sich die Arbeit auf zwei Produ-tions- und damit Kostenfaktoren der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion beschränkt, ist die Betrachtung beider Themenfelder von nicht zu unterschätzender Bedeutung, insbesondere im Arbeitsalltag von Landwirten. Die Ergebnisse sind aber auch für politische Entscheider relevant. Dies zeigt sich gegenwärtig bei der Reduktion von chemisch-synthetischen Pflan-zenschutzmitteln.
Valorization for biodiversity and ecosystem services in local food value chains - Status quo and future options
(2023) Voglhuber-Slavinsky, Ariane; Bahrs, Enno
Neben dem Klimawandel und dem Bevölkerungswachstum ist der Verlust an Biodiversität ein zentrales Thema für die Landwirtschaft als unmittelbar betroffener Bereich, aber verbunden durch die Wertschöpfungsströme auch für das gesamte Agrarsystem. Letzteres umfasst nicht nur die Lieferkette, sondern auch wertschöpfende Prozesse bis hin zum Konsumenten und darüber hinaus weitere Stakeholder wie Zertifizierungsstellen, Behörden etc. aber auch Schnittstellen wie den Energie- oder Gesundheitssektor. Die physische Verortung des Biodiversitätsschutzes bzw. der Biodiversitätsförderung ist allerdings auf die landwirtschaftliche Bewirtschaftung sowie auf den Naturschutz beschränkt. Daher wird oft die Aufgabe des Schutzes der Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen alleinig der Landwirtschaft zugerechnet. Die Verknüpfung aller Akteure im Agrarsystem ist allerdings notwendig, um einen effektiven Biodiversitätsschutz zu gewährleisten. Das zunehmende Augenmerk auf die Biodiversität als essentiellen Bestandteil eines funktionierenden Agrarsystems in den letzten Jahrzehnten hat allerdings nicht dazu geführt, dass die Akteure des Agri-Food-Systems ihre individuelle Verantwortung für den Biodiversitätsschutz erkannt haben. Zahlreiche Bemühungen wie die Archi targets, die Nationale Strategie zur biologischen Vielfalt oder das Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz auf deutscher Ebene haben ihr Ziel verfehlt. Mitunter ist die Tatsache, dass Biodiversität als Gemeingut (common good) in der Regel nicht eingepreist wird und so in wertschöpfenden Prozessen nicht darstellbar ist, ein Grund für das mangelnde Engagement der Akteure. Im Themengebiet der Forschung zur Biodiversität liegt das Hauptaugenmerkt auf der physischen Erfassung sowie auf der Übersetzung dieser Beobachtungen in Zahlenwerte im Zuge einer Integration in bestehende Wertschöpfungsprozesse. Um an dieser Stelle die Verknüpfung konsequent bis hin zum Konsumenten (zivilgesellschaftlich, unternehmerisch) weiterzuziehen, ist es allerdings notwendig, unterschiedliche Optionen der Inwertsetzung zu erörtern, um Zahlungsbereitschaften oder andere Formen der Wertschätzung zu generieren. Es ist daher notwendig, übergeordnete Ziele wie die Archi targets und konkrete Maßnahmen – auch lokaler Natur – miteinander zu verknüpfen. Der Vorteil lokaler Ansätze liegt darin, dass sich Akteure vor Ort besser verpflichten lassen und das Engagement höher ist als bei abstrakteren überregionalen oder gar internationalen Maßnahmen. In Kapitel 4 der Arbeit wird daher die Integration von "lokalen" Maßnahmen zur Förderung eines lokalen Lebensmittelsystems in Szenarien für den Europäischen Food Sektor dargestellt. Außerdem ist die Quantifizierung oder auch der Einfluss auf die Biodiversität nicht nur unter derzeitigen Rahmenbedingungen, sondern auch unter zukünftigen zu bewerten. So wird in Kapitel 3 dargestellt, wie sich die Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt eines landwirtschaftlichen Produkts entlang seines Lebenszyklus gegenüber unterschiedlichen alternativen Entwicklungen darstellen. Die Implementierung von Biodiversität als Umweltbelastungskategorie (environmental impact category) in eine Ökobilanz (Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) ist noch nicht weit verbreitet, stellt aber eine Möglichkeit für die anschließende Inwertsetzung dar. Die in den Szenarien dargestellten Rahmenbedingungen spiegeln zudem die gesellschaftliche Ausrichtung wider und dienen so dazu, soziale Aspekte in die Bewertung der umweltbezogenen Vorteilhaftigkeit von Produkten indirekt einfließen zu lassen. Folglich sind auch die Inwertsetzungsoptionen hinsichtlich ihrer Passfähigkeit mit unterschiedlichen zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen zu untersuchen. Dieser Ansatz wird in Kapitel 2 untersucht. Auch hier werden durch die Integration von Szenarien soziale Aspekte mitberücksichtigt. Dies kann zu einer besseren Beurteilung der Akzeptanz von Inwertsetzungsoptionen beitragen. Die vorliegende Arbeit soll daher darstellen, wie Maßnahmen zum Schutz der Biodiversität sowie von Ökosystemleistungen und die monetäre und nicht-monetäre Wertschätzung für die Erbringung dieser Leistungen zusammengeführt werden können. In diesem Zusammenhang ist vor allem die Interaktion verschiedener Akteure entlang der Wertschöpfungskette relevant, um den bestehenden Fokus auf die Agrarproduktion auf weitere Akteure auszudehnen. Die gegenwärtige Betrachtung wird zudem mittels Foresight-Methoden um einen vorrausschauenden Aspekt erweitert. In Ergänzung zur zeitlichen Perspektive wird räumlich, ausgehend von lokalen Wertschöpfungsketten, auch der internationale Kontext des Agri-Food Systems betrachtet. Das Kapitel 2 analysiert konkrete Inwertsetzungsoptionen für Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette mit einem Fokus auf private Optionen. Es werden dabei monetäre und nicht-monetäre Optionen untersucht, sowie ein Überblick gegeben, welche Inwertsetzungsoptionen heute bestehen und auch unter zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen bestehen können. Darüber hinaus wurde das DPSIR-Framework für die Analyse der privaten Inwertsetzungsoptionen angewendet, wobei diese als Responses klassifiziert wurden, sowie eine rechtliche Bewertung vorgenommen. Ein Bewertungsinstrument, das für eine darauffolgende Inwertsetzung genutzt werden kann, ist das Life Cycle Assessment. Dieses nicht nur für die gegenwärtigen Bedingungen anzuwenden, sondern auch unter Berücksichtigung zukünftiger Rahmenbedingungen ist Inhalt des Kapitels 3. Konkret wird das Zukunftspotential einer Technologie unter zukünftigen Rahmenbedingungen untersucht und in der LCA als Veränderung im Backgroundsystem sichtbar gemacht. Hierzu wurden mithilfe von Literaturrecherchen und Experteninterviews die qualitativen Annahmen aus den Szenarien in Veränderungen der Werte des Life Cycle Inventories übersetzt. Dieses Vorgehen ermöglicht es, zukünftige Rahmenbedingungen zu antizipieren und die gegenwärtigen Handlungen besser gegenüber Unsicherheiten auszurichten. Kapitel 4 befasst sich in erster Linie mit der Verknüpfung des lokalen und internationalen Kontextes in Form von lokalen Maßnahmen und Umfeldszenarien zum Europäischen Agri-Food Sektor. Zudem wird in diesem Kapitel auch die zeitliche Perspektive betrachtet, indem die Passfähigkeit der lokalen Maßnahmen zur Erhöhung des Anteils lokaler Lebensmittel an der Gesamtversorgung gegenüber zukünftigen Entwicklungen geprüft wird. Das in diesem Kapitel gewählte Vorgehen diente als Grundlage für die Prüfung der Robustheit von Inwertsetzungsoptionen gegenüber zukünftigen Entwicklungen in Kapitel 2. Zudem dient das hierin vorgestellte Konzept des Agri-Food Systems dazu, Inwertsetzungsoptionen von Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen entlang der gesamten Wertschöpfungskette zu verorten, um so ein größeres Portfolio an Möglichkeiten sichtbar zu machen, als dies bei einer Fokussierung auf die landwirtschaftliche Produktion allein der Fall wäre. Die methodische Kombination von bereits existierenden Rahmenwerken ist eine gute Möglichkeit der Mehrfachnutzung von wissenschaftlichen Ergebnissen zur Generierung neuer Ergebnisse. Dies wird nicht nur in Kapitel 4 deutlich, sondern trifft auch auf die Ergebnisse in Kapitel 3 zu. Hier wird quantitative und qualitative Forschung mittels Literaturrecherche und einer Experteneinschätzung kombiniert. Darüber hinaus zeigt Kapitel 2, dass die Einordnung der unterschiedlichen Ansätze von Inwertsetzungs-optionen sinnvoll durch eine interdisziplinäre Betrachtung ergänzt werden können. Die Erläuterung der rechtlichen Konsequenzen bzw. die systemische Analyse (DPSIR) der Inwertsetzungsoptionen liefert relevante Rückschlüsse für die Praxis und ist übertragbar auf andere Forschungsvorhaben. Als Herausforderung im Kontext der Inwertsetzung von Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von Biodiversität und Ökosystemleistungen (BES) erweist sich die Tatsache, dass die Verantwortung für den Schutz von BES vorrangig der Landwirtschaft zugerechnet wird. Diese ist mit ihrer naturräumlichen Verflechtung naturgemäß Hauptakteur, wenn es um die konkrete physische Implementierung von Maßnahmen geht. Sie ist aber nicht alleinig für die Initiierung und Ermöglichung verantwortlich. Es ist daher notwendig, alle Akteure entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette zu animieren, ihren Beitrag für den Schutz von BES zu leisten. Darüber hinaus sind viele Möglichkeiten der Inwertsetzung auf bestimmte örtliche Gegebenheiten ausgerichtet, wie zum Beispiel informierte und interessierte Anwohner, und können so nur bedingt auf andere Konstellationen übertragen werden. Diese Kleinteiligkeit der Ansätze erschwert es, eine einfache Übertragung von Konzepten sicherzustellen. Des Weiteren gib es keine einheitliche Definition von Inwertsetzungsoptionen zum Erhalt von BES, was die Zuordnung und die Kommunikation bestehender Initiativen erschwert. Es ist daher anzustreben, Best-Practice Beispiele zu kommunizieren, sowohl in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur als auch im internationalen und nationalen Governancebereich bis zu den Konsumenten. Dabei ist darauf zu achten, dass regionale Besonderheiten herausgestellt werden und somit Bewusstsein für die Notwendigkeit der Anpassung geschaffen wird. Die Definition des Begriffs Inwertsetzung (valorization) in Abgrenzung von der reinen Bewertung (valuation) ermöglicht es, die Ansätze herauszustellen, die die Maßnahmenumsetzung mit konkreten Akteuren und deren Wertschätzung verbinden. Die vorliegende Arbeit deutet den Nutzen digitaler Vernetzung an, beispielsweise für die Rückverfolgbarkeit von unter bestimmten Rahmenbedingungen hergestellten Produkten oder einer besseren Raumplanung im Zusammenhang mit Maßnahmen zum Erhalt von BES. Dieser Aspekt sollte in zukünftiger Forschung vertieft werden und hinsichtlich seiner rechtlichen Konsequenzen beleuchtet werden. Ein entscheidender Punkt wird darüber hinaus die Akquirierung von Akteuren entlang der Agri-Food Wertschöpfungskette sein. Es gilt in weiteren Inwertsetzungsoptionen die Einbindung dieser zu verstärken und somit einen systemischen Ansatz zum Erhalt und zur Förderung von BES zu verfolgen.
Markups and export behavior: Firm‐level evidence from the French food processing industry
(2022) Jafari, Yaghoob; Koppenberg, Maximilian; Hirsch, Stefan; Heckelei, Thomas
The relationship between a firm's markups and its export behavior is highly relevant to individual firms' strategic decisions as well as to governments' policies regarding competition. We investigate the impact of markups on firms' decisions to export and resulting export intensity in the French food processing industry. Moreover, we assess the effect of entry into and remaining in the export market on firms' markups and evaluate differences in markups between exporters and non‐exporters. Our results suggest that higher markups lead to both increased participation in the export market and greater export intensity. In addition, we find that firms obtain higher markups by entering and remaining in the export market. Finally, our results suggest that exporters generate higher markups, on average, than non‐exporters. Similar results are found when controlling for differences in firms' productivity. Our findings suggest that trade policies designed to increase firms' participation in export markets, such as limits to border restrictions, may counteract domestic competition policies targeted at price–cost margins.
Weiterentwicklung von Kennzahlen der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebslehre für das steuerliche Bewertungsrecht und die Analyse von Bodenmärkten
(2023) Back, Hans Walter; Bahrs, Enno
Die Land- und Forstwirtschaft ist ein besonderer Teil der Volkswirtschaft, da sie essentielle und nicht substituierbare Nahrungsmittel und Rohstoffe bereitstellt. Die landwirtschaftliche Produktion interagiert durch die Nutzung natürlicher Prozesse und Ressourcen mit der Umwelt. Beispielsweise ist sie ein bedeutender Bodennutzer. Dies sind einige Gründe für ein öffentliches und staatliches Interesse an den Entwicklungen in der Landwirtschaft, das sich auch auf den ökonomischen Bereich erstreckt. Aus agrarpolitischen Erwägungen und um gesellschaftlich erwünschte Ziele zu erreichen, existieren neben Eingriffen in die Agrar- und Bodenmärkte für die Landwirtschaft auch Sonderregelungen und spezifische Vorgaben in weiteren Bereichen wie dem Steuerrecht. Die (steuer-)rechtlichen und regulatorischen Vorgaben werden veränderten wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen angepasst und beeinflussen die ökonomische Situation der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe, Haushalte und der Volkswirtschaft. Daher benötigen politische Akteure zur Planung, Entscheidung und Evaluierung qualitative und quantitative Informationen zur ökonomischen Wirkung der jeweiligen Maßnahmen oder Instrumente. Weiterhin ist die Land- und Forstwirtschaft Gegenstand der Besteuerung und muss von anderen Steuertatbeständen abgegrenzt und mit angepassten Methoden bewertet werden. In beiden Fällen werden die Daten einzelner Unternehmen wie z. B. aus dem betrieblichen Rechnungswesen benötigt, können jedoch aufgrund ihres Umfangs nicht immer in ihrer originären Form verwendet werden. Folglich müssen die Informationen aufbereitet und verdichtet werden. Ein methodischer Ansatz sind Kennzahlen, die betriebswirtschaftlich relevante Sachverhalte in kompakter und standardisierter Form darstellen. Die Übertragung in andere Anwendungsgebiete außerhalb individueller betriebswirtschaftlicher Überlegungen, aber auch veränderte Rahmenbedingungen erfordern eine Anpassung und Weiterentwicklung der Kennzahlen an die konkrete Fragestellung. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist ein Beitrag zur Weiterentwicklung der methodischen Ausgestaltung und zu den Anwendungsmöglichkeiten von betriebswirtschaftlichen Kennzahlen in zwei exemplarischen Anwendungsfeldern – der Analyse des landwirtschaftlichen Bodenmarktes und dem steuerlichen Bewertungsrecht. Der landwirtschaftliche Bodenmarkt in Deutschland ist seit etwa 15 Jahren durch einen starken Preisanstieg und das Auftreten neuer Marktakteure gekennzeichnet. Dies hat eine Debatte über die Notwendigkeit und Ausgestaltung regulatorischer Eingriffe in den Bodenmarkt zum Schutz der Landwirtinnen und Landwirte ausgelöst. In Kapitel 2 dieser Arbeit wird anhand der Kennzahl Grundrente geprüft, ob die Kaufpreisentwicklung durch die landwirtschaftliche Ertragsfähigkeit abgebildet wird und des Weiteren diskutiert, was weitere Referenzen für Überpreise im Kontext des Grundstückverkehrsrechts sein können. Dabei zeigen die Auswertungen von Testbetriebsdaten, dass die kapitalisierten Grundrenten der besseren Betriebe auch aufgrund niedriger Zinssätze dem Niveau der Kaufpreise entsprechen. Generelle Überpreise liegen somit nicht vor, wenngleich dies vereinzelt oder regional nicht auszuschließen ist. Die kapitalisierte Grundrente stellt jedoch aufgrund methodenimmanenter Unsicherheiten keine geeignete Referenz für agrarpolitisch motivierte Interventionen dar. Der Referenzwert kann sich am Bodenrichtwert orientieren, auch wenn dieser die Preisentwicklung verzögert abbildet. Die durchschnittliche Betriebsgröße ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten angestiegen. Ein weiteres Argument für eine erweiterte Regulation sind die befürchteten Auswirkungen von Konzentration und Ungleichverteilung bei Bewirtschaftung und Bodeneigentum. Zu den angedachten Maßnahmen zählen auch Beschränkungen für Kauf- und Pachtinteressenten mit überdurchschnittlichen Marktanteilen in regionalen Bodenmärkten. In Kapitel 3 werden Vorschläge zur Messung von Konzentration in der Bewirtschaftung anhand verschiedener Disparitäts- und Konzentrationsmaße auf Basis einzelbetrieblicher Daten dargestellt. In Deutschland ist eine Disparität der Flächenbewirtschaftung und in einigen Regionen auch eine deutliche Konzentration auf größere Betriebe feststellbar. Daher wird in Kapitel 4 der Zusammenhang zwischen Konzentration und den Bodenpreisen (Bodenrichtwerten) mit Hilfe eines hedonischen Preismodells analysiert, um daraus Empfehlungen für agrar- bzw. bodenpolitische Maßnahmen abzuleiten. Neben weiteren landwirtschaftlichen und nichtlandwirtschaftlichen Einflussfaktoren auf die Bodenrichtwerte werden räumliche Autokorrelationen auf Ebene der Gemeinden berücksichtigt. Trotz unterschiedlichem Niveau der Flächenkonzentration bestätigt sich ein negativer, aber regional unterschiedlich ausgeprägter Zusammenhang zwischen Disparität sowie Konzentration und den Bodenrichtwerten für die Bundesländer Thüringen, Rheinland-Pfalz und Nordrhein-Westfalen. Auch wenn Konzentration wettbewerbsrechtlich problematisch sein kann, könnte sie zu einer politisch intendierten Preisdämpfung führen. Da der kausale Zusammenhang, dass Bewirtschaftungskonzentration zu niedrigeren Bodenpreisen führt, methodisch nicht nachweisbar ist, könnten niedrige Preise, ökonomischer Erfolg und Pfadabhängigkeit auch Gründe für Konzentration sein. Eine formal definierte Berücksichtigung von Konzentration in Form von absoluten Eigentums- und Bewirtschaftungsgrößen bei einer veränderten Bodenmarktregulierung erscheint nicht sinnvoll, zumal das allgemeine deutsche Marktmachtkonzept auf konkret abgegrenzte Märkten fokussiert, für die relative Maße bedeutender sind. Für die Agrarpolitik besteht weiterhin eine Diskrepanz zwischen geforderter Regulation, ihrer Notwendigkeit und unerwünschten Nebeneffekten, was weiteren Forschungsbedarf bei der Aufklärung der Wirkungszusammenhänge auf dem Bodenmarkt hin zu einer umfassenden Theorie impliziert. Das zweite exemplarische Anwendungsfeld befasst sich mit dem steuerlichen Bewertungsrecht im Bereich der Landwirtschaft. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat mit Urteil vom 10.04.2018 den Einheitswert als bisherige Bemessungsgrundlage der Grundsteuer aufgrund veralteter Bewertungsrelationen für verfassungswidrig erklärt, sodass der Gesetzgeber die Grundsteuer mit dem Grundsteuer-Reformgesetz auch für die Landwirtschaft neu regelte. Dabei wurde zum einen die Abgrenzung der landwirtschaftlichen Wohnbebauung zur Grundsteuer B neu eingeführt, was vielfältige bundeslandspezifische Bewertungsmaßstäbe zur Folge hat. Zum anderen wurde die Bewertungsmethodik für den bisherigen Wirtschaftsteil aktualisiert. Nicht novelliert wurde dagegen die veraltete Abgrenzung der landwirtschaftlichen zur gewerblichen Tierhaltung anhand der Kennzahl Vieheinheit, was auch für die Ertragsbesteuerung relevant ist. Die bestehende Vieheinheiten-Systematik bildet die Tierhaltung nicht mehr sachgerecht ab. Kapitel 5 zeigt daher Optionen zur Aktualisierung dieser Abgrenzung sowie exemplarische Auswirkungen für die Tierhalter. Bei einer linear bundeseinheitlichen Viehbesatzgrenze könnten etwa 2,5 (neue) Vieheinheiten bzw. Milchkühe je ha landwirtschaftlich gehalten werden. Diese Grenze kann nach Ackerland und Dauergrünland getrennt und auf regionaler Ebene differenzierter ermittelt werden. Von den Novellierungsoptionen profitieren Veredlungsbetriebe (Schweine und Geflügel) sowie flächenstarke Betriebe. Das folgende Kapitel 6 analysiert und diskutiert vor allem die Bewertungsmethodik der novellierten Grundsteuer, die im Kontext der Landwirtschaft weiterhin ein Ertragswertverfahren vorsieht. Mit der durch das Gesetz neu entwickelten Kennzahl des standardisierten Reinertrags wird ein in der Landwirtschaft nicht mehr realistischer pacht- und schuldenfreier Betrieb unterstellt. Eine sachlogisch nicht nachvollziehbare zusätzliche Reduktion der Lohnansätze anhand der Nettorentabilität verursacht systematische Verzerrungen und Überbewertungen, die vermutlich durch eine entsprechend angepasste Steuermesszahl annähernd ausgeglichen werden. Aufgrund der jüngsten und auch zukünftig zu erwartenden Schäden im deutschen Wald wird eine aktualisierte Bewertung für den Forst vorgeschlagen. Diese Anpassung ist mittlerweile, nach Einreichung und Annahme des entsprechenden Beitrags, auch erfolgt. Für das steuerliche Bewertungsrecht wäre die skizzierte Optimierung der Ertragsbewertung zu begrüßen. Eine Novellierung der Abgrenzung anhand der Vieheinheiten ist dagegen sowohl für die Grundsteuer als auch für die Ertragsbesteuerung dringend zu empfehlen und würde die zukünftige Perspektive der landwirtschaftlichen Tierhaltung mitgestalten. Insgesamt zeigen die Kapitel dieser Arbeit, dass betriebswirtschaftliche Kennzahlen auch zu nicht ausschließlich betriebswirtschaftlichen Fragestellungen einen Beitrag zum Erkenntnisgewinn leisten können. Bedeutend ist eine methodisch korrekte, an die Problematik angepasste und aktuelle Ermittlung. Durch die Informationsverdichtung ermöglichen Kennzahlen einen schnellen Zugang zu wirtschaftlichen Zusammenhängen und tragen zu verbesserten agrarpolitischen Entscheidungen sowie einer gerechteren Besteuerung bei.
Analysis of the impact, costs and acceptance of lapwing plots as a protection measure for farmland birds in Germany
(2023) Buschmann, Christoph; Lippert, Christian
Biodiversity in the agricultural landscape is declining in the European Union (EU) including Germany. This trend is also observed for farmland bird populations that are used as an important indicator of overall species diversity. Among farmland birds, the Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is an indicator species whose population has been particularly affected. Populations suffer inter alia from frequent cultivation measures and degraded habitat quality on agriculturally used land. To improve the status of farmland bird populations, appropriate measures are called for both in the EU and on German national level in different strategy papers. The European Commission has set the concrete target to increase farmland bird populations by 30 % until 2050. Despite the high demand to plan the implementation of biodiversity strategies, literature provides little guidance for farmland birds, i. e. ex-ante modelling of how many protection measures and how much compensation are needed to achieve certain time-bound conservation targets. The thesis addresses this research gap by analysing the impact of the conservation measure ‘lapwing plot’. Lapwing plots are fallow sections within arable fields that can be used as feeding areas and - during the breeding season - provide cover for the chicks from predators. In detail, the thesis pursues three objectives: First, to project how much lapwing plot provision is required to meet specific time-bound conservation targets on a national level by using a spatially explicit population viability analysis (PVA). Second, to calculate the corresponding costs based on implementation and opportunity costs (i. e. gross margins forgone) for compensating farmers who participate in a lapwing plot agri-environmental scheme (AES). For this, the PVA is combined with an economic analysis. Third, to analyse the acceptance of a lapwing plot AES by surveying farmers with a discrete choice experiment (DCE). PVA results show that the lapwing population in Germany could decline from 70.000 breeding pairs in 2006 to 12.000 or 23.000 pairs (depending on model assumptions) in 2055 if no further conservation measures were taken and land use remained stable. To achieve the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission for the lapwing, 30 % or 65 % of the breeding pairs need to be protected by a lapwing plot in arable land or a comparably effective measure in grassland. The corresponding costs for protection on arable land range from on average 1.1 to 5.6 million € per year depending on model assumptions. Costs may, however, be reduced by up to 52 % with a regionally focused economic optimisation. Since AES participation is voluntary, acceptance is of crucial importance. The DCE conducted to analyse acceptance considers different design options if the lapwing plot were introduced as an AES and identifies possible drivers and inhibitors of farmers’ participation. Remarkably, those design options which ensure that the AES can be co-financed by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), i. e., a participation period of five years and the nature of the relevant sanctions regime, are a particular acceptance barrier. However, so far EAFRD - as part of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) - has been the most important funding instrument for AESs. Therefore, the thesis outlines how the lack of EAFRD acceptance could be addressed in the new CAP period 2023-2027 and points out alternative funding instruments. In conclusion, the lapwing plot is - according to the PVA results - a suitable measure to meet conservation objectives, such as the ’30 % plus conservation target’ of the EU Commission, if it is implemented to a sufficient extent. However, it is questionable whether a sufficient extent of implementation can be achieved if the lapwing plot is put into practice relying on voluntary AES with the available funding instruments and limited budgets. This would require a high level of acceptance among farmers in the affected regions. Therefore, the lapwing plot needs to be combined with other conservation approaches including the expansion of protected areas and in-field measures, such as the reduced use of fertilisers and pesticides. For policy makers, it is recommended to develop combined solutions in overall strategies and perform corresponding ex-ante modelling. For such strategies the thesis provides an important basis and with the PVA a suitable expandable model.
Understanding and addressing food loss and waste : a multidimensional analysis of wheat loss and bread waste in Iran
(2023) Ghaziani, Shahin; Reiner, Doluschitz
Food loss and waste (FLW) is a global issue with significant environmental and economic consequences, threatening food security. Reports show that 14% of global food production is lost in production and supply chains, while 17% is wasted at the consumption stage. Despite this, theres a lack of knowledge, especially in developing countries like Iran, facing challenges due to sanctions, environmental issues, and water scarcity. This doctoral study focuses on FLW in Iran, adopting a lifecycle approach, with wheat and wheat bread in Fars province as the main focus. The research aims to quantify and analyze food waste, identify hotspots, enhance quantification methods, and explore causes and solutions. The study includes mapping the wheat lifecycle, analyzing loss and waste factors, and proposing interventions. Data collection involves surveys and a laboratory experiment. The first survey in October 2018 used value stream mapping to overview the wheat and bread lifecycle. It identified farms, foodservice establishments, and households as major hotspots, revealing data gaps. The second survey, from December 2018 to August 2019, focused on household bread waste (HBW) in Shiraz. The survey involved 419 households and included a self-assessment questionnaire, a food frequency questionnaire for dietary data collection, and a socioeconomic status section. Findings led to three articles. The third article addressed underestimation in self-assessment methods using a lab experiment, improving accuracy. A lab experiment simulated common consumption recipes and measured resulting waste. Comparing the lab results with HBW estimates from the questionnaire survey, the article presents underestimation ratios ranging from 1.24 to 1.80. The fourth article reveals HBW in Shiraz at 1.80%, with traditional bread waste at 1.70% and non-traditional bread waste at 2.50%. However, these percentages do not consider the underestimation inherent in the self-assessment method. Adjusting for underestimation within this study population, traditional bread waste increases to 3.06%, and non-traditional bread waste rises to 3.58%. Outdated data from previous Iranian reports was highlighted. The final article uses multiple regression modeling to predict HBW based on household dietary patterns and socioeconomic scores. It emphasizes the need for consumer-focused interventions to address household food waste effectively, such as developing FLW reduction policies targeting specific consumers grouped based on waste-related characteristics. In conclusion, the dissertation provides a comprehensive analysis of wheat loss and bread waste in Iran, offering insights into environmental, economic, and food security implications. It guides improvements in agricultural productivity, farmer cooperation, and consumer-focused strategies for sustainable consumption. The research contributes methodological advancements and informs decision-making for reducing wheat loss and bread waste, fostering responsible production and consumption.
The adoption of agricultural machinery and its economic impacts in China
(2023) Quan, Xiuhao; Doluschitz, Reiner
In modern agriculture, machinery plays an important role to substitute manual labor and to improve productivity and economic performance of farm households. Conventional agricultural machinery in crop production includes tractors, cultivators, tillers, combine harvesters, pumps, threshers, planters, fertilizer spreaders, seeders, etc. In recent years, as an innovative agricultural machinery, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been adopted in precision agriculture for crop monitoring and crop spraying. However, factors influencing Chinese farmers’ adoption of agricultural machinery and the economic impacts of the adoption have not been adequately studied, especially regarding farm machinery in maize production and UAVs in precision agriculture. In addition, there is limited literature that systematically summarizes the use of UAVs in maize production. The development of UAV-based pattern management in Chinese agriculture and the prerequisites for adopting and implementing this approach remain unclear. By utilizing farm household data, qualitative methods, and econometric quantitative methods, this dissertation aims to (i) identify the factors influencing the adoption of farm machinery and UAVs by Chinese farmers; (ii) estimate the economic impacts of adopting farm machinery and UAVs; (iii) provide an overview of UAV applications in maize production; (iv) study the prerequisites for adopting and implementing UAV-based pattern management in Chinese agriculture; (v) outline and recommend policy instruments to promote the use of farm machinery and UAVs in China. The empirical results indicate that the determinants of farm machinery adoption and UAV adoption can be attributed by three major aspects: farmer characteristics (e.g., age, education level, and perceptions about agricultural machinery), farm characteristics (e.g., farm size, land fragmentation, and cooperative membership), and other external socio-economic factors (e.g., subsidies, technical assistance, and labor shortages). The adoption of farm machinery and UAVs has shown significantly positive economic effects. However, the effects vary among farm household types due to the heterogeneous farm characteristics and socio-economic conditions. Farm machinery use significantly increased maize yield by 0.216 tons/ha and improved labor productivity by 18.65%. Young, male, and better-educated farmers benefit more from adopting farm machinery, and farms located in plain regions with cooperative membership and rented land can gain higher economic benefits from machinery use. In addition, the impacts of farm machinery adoption on maize yield and labor productivity slightly decrease with farm size. The adoption of UAVs in pesticide application significantly increased revenue and reduced the time spent on pesticide application by approximately 434-488 USD/ha and 14.4-15.8 hours/ha, respectively. In terms of marginal revenue and marginal time spent on pesticide application, the optimal area for using UAVs in pesticide spraying is estimated to be 20 hectares of arable land, suggesting that small and medium-scale farmers are the main beneficiaries of UAV adoption. For the wide application of UAV-based pattern management in precision agriculture, certain socio-economic and technical prerequisites are necessary. These include farmers possessing adequate UAV-related capabilities, relatively large farm sizes, availability of UAV-related subsidies, and superior UAV performance. Balancing the pros and cons, the effective promotion of farm machinery in maize production and UAVs in precision agriculture requires the establishment of a comprehensive socio-economic institution. This institution should integrate strategies from both the public and private sectors such as the implementation of land consolidation, the establishment of agricultural machinery cooperatives for benefit-risk sharing, the provision of practical training and education on agricultural machinery, and subsidies for the purchase of agricultural machinery. Due to the heterogeneous effects of farm machinery adoption and UAV adoption, it is necessary to develop customized extension services tailored to various types of farm households to prevent inequity among farmers.
Towards sustainable chemical fertilizer management in China : from theory to farm household
(2023) Yu, Xiaomin; Doluschitz, Reiner
Over the past few decades, China’s grain production has expanded drastically. On the one hand, this has eliminated food shortages and allowed China to feed its huge and still growing population. On the other hand, the rapid growth in grain productivity has come at a heavy cost. Excessive fertilizer use has led to a variety of negative consequences that threaten national food security and environmental sustainability. Since the 2010s, the Chinese government and academia have made considerable efforts to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers and improve nutrient management. These include a wide range of regulations to control or guide chemical fertilizer use, policies to eliminate subsidies for the fertilizer industry, and nationwide promotion of scientific fertilizer application methods. In response to these efforts, Chinas overall fertilizer application rate has been declining since 2016. However, China still applies far more fertilizers than its crops need, and the current crop Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) and Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE) in China are both below the global average. Therefore, reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers for crop production and sustainably feeding a large population remains a key challenge for China. This dissertation aims to contribute to sustainable nutrient management in China by providing a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of fertilizer use and management at the national, regional, farm and household levels. In the first study (Chapter 2), a systematic review of the historical development and current status of chemical fertilizer use and management in China at the national level is presented. In addition, fertilizer nutrient surpluses are estimated for 30 provinces in China and the regional and temporal variations are visualized. In the second study (Chapter 3), the relationship between fertilizer nutrient surpluses and the regional economy at the provincial level is examined within the framework of the Environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. A panel cointegration approach is employed, using time-series data from 1988 to 2019. In the third study (Chapter 4), the research focus is further narrowed to the farm household resolution. Using cross-sectional survey data from 774 maize-growing farms in northern China in 2019, the study investigates the role of farm characteristics, farmers knowledge, perceptions, and socioeconomic context in farmers fertilizer use strategies. The studies confirm that by 2021, China has reached zero growth in fertilizer use and fertilizer nutrient surpluses at the national and regional level. However, regions with a high proportion of cash crops, such as the southeast coast and northwest, still suffer from high nutrient surpluses. Furthermore, in circa 2012, China has reached its EKC turning point between fertilizer nutrient surpluses and GDP per capita. With further economic growth, the fertilizer surpluses in most Chinese provinces will decrease, indicating a moderating of the tension between economic development and the environment. Looking at the farm and household level, the study shows that in northern China, small farms are more likely to overuse fertilizers in maize cultivation without further yield improvement. Current extension programs have had a positive impact on farmers’ fertilizer use strategies and environmental awareness; nevertheless, the coverage and effectiveness of trainings should be improved. In summary, the dissertation identifies the following key factors that impede sustainable chemical fertilizer management in China: small farm size; regional economic dependence on cash crops; the large discrepancy between farmers practices and scientific production guidelines; and the shrinking and aging of Chinas rural labor force. To address these aspects, the dissertation proposes recommendations at the national strategic level, policy level and implementation level, respectively. The findings and recommendations of this dissertation can serve as a robust decision support and scientific basis for policy makers, stakeholders and researchers in the field of sustainable nutrient management in China.
Sustainability assessment and education for sustainability in the Russian Federation on the example of Tambov region
(2021) Bezgin, Anna; Doluschitz, Reiner
Over the past few decades economic growth has come at the expenses of the environments and the topic of sustainable development is becoming more important. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The main aim of this dissertation was to investigate the available methodologies of sustainability assessment and to test which of them could be suitable for Russian conditions. Russia is an interesting subject for research as, it has its own history of sustainability science, but quite often the commitment to sustainable development is only in rhetoric and there are some problems with the interpretation of the concept of sustainable development. For example, in Russian official documents the term sustainability is used as a synonym for stable economic growth. The focus of the research was a creation of an indicator system for a regional sustainability assessment on the example of Tambov region of the Russian Federation. At the first stage of the research a regional assessment was performed with the help of the United Nations set of sustainable development indicators, SWOT analysis was performed to identify the main strengths and problems in the region. Also, the availability of statistical data and relevancy for the research region of the indicators was checked. During the next stage of the research a composite indicator was created using different techniques for normalization of indicator and weighting. Then robustness and sensitivity analysis of created indicators was performed, the results were visualised, and composite indicators were decomposed to explain the drivers of the aggregated results. The result of this work has shown that composite indicators together with regional assessment on the base of sustainability indicators are the tools that could support policymakers in sustainability decision-making. There are some problems with the availability of the statistical data in Russia, and there is no monitoring mechanism at the federal district level and lack of coordination with work of statistical agencies. This research is confirming a necessity of further research, and a need to develop a monitoring and assessment system in Russian Federation. The second part of the research was devoted to education for sustainable development. UNESCO is stressing that the approach of Education for Sustainable Development empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations, and therefore education is playing a crucial role in reaching sustainability (UNESCO, 2017). The aim of this research was to see how the sustainability topics are integrated into the curriculum of the agricultural universities, to define the sources of integration and research possible problems and formulate the recommendations for strengthening the integration. To research the education for sustainable development in Russia first a literature review was conducted, followed by 16 semi-structured interviews with the representatives of 8 universities. The research confirmed the fact that sustainability is present as a topic in the official documents, for example educational standard, but this mention remains only rhetorical and does not provide the background for the establishment of a framework for integration of sustainability concept. As a result, the integration into education is mostly driven by the personal initiative of the teaching staff. There is a clear demand for an integration framework of sustainability topics in the federal state educational standard. The main problems are uncoordination and competition between departments and ministries, overload of teachers, lack of best-practices, absence of system in the education and limited financing. These problems could be mitigated with creation of interdepartmental centres, creation of interdisciplinary working groups, creation of a systematic concept of education for sustainability and involvement of different stakeholders into educational projects, but the success of these measures depends on the general approach and if the importance of sustainability will be present only in official documents, then there will be no shift in integration, and everything will depend only on individual initiative of teachers.
Discrete Choice Experimente zur Analyse des Entscheidungsverhaltens von Landwirten am Beispiel von Vorkaufsrechten für landwirtschaftliche Nutzflächen und Ertragsversicherungen
(2022) Moog, Kristina; Bahrs, Enno
Farmers in Germany are currently facing new challenges, which require operational adaptation and associated decisions. As a result of climate change, extreme weather events are occurring with increasing frequency, which can damage or even destroy agricultural harvests. For this reason, farmers are faced with the decision of whether and how they can protect their crops from damaging events and which instruments are best suited for this purpose. However, the increasing prices on the farmland market and the associated appearance of non-agricultural investors on the farmland market also mean that land can become more expensive for farmers. The possibility of privileging farmers towards investors in the form of pre-emptive rights, which is being discussed politically in this context, is an instrument for shaping the farmland market. This outlines the focus of this work, which is to examine the decision-making behaviour of farmers in connection with these exemplary current challenges and to determine what willingness there is on the part of farmers to pay or accept certain solutions for overcoming these decision-making challenges and what benefits these solutions have for farmers. Discrete choice experiments are used for this purpose, in which the farmers surveyed are confronted with (fictional) decision-making situations in which the preferred alternative is to be chosen from several alternatives. These alternatives are described by different attributes and levels, which are systematically varied over the entire experimental design. Subsequently, different models can be used to estimate the benefit of individual attributes and the willingness to pay or willingness to accept. Therefore, a discrete choice experiment was developed to investigate the decision-making behaviour of farmers when registering pre-emptive rights, to determine the benefits of individual pre-emptive rights attributes and the willingness-to-pay for these attributes. The results,show, that the majority of the farmers surveyed preferred to choose one of the two pre-emptive rights over the status quo. I.e. farmers derive a benefit from pre-emptive rights and show a willingness-to-pay for pre-emptive rights to farmland, both of which depend on the characteristics of the pre-emptive right, but also on the personal and operational situation of the respondent. Due to the complexity of the issue of pre-emptive rights, another discrete choice experiment was conducted to analyse the decision-making behaviour of the owners of farmland affected by pre-emptive rights. Based on the sample chosen, only owners of farmland who are farmers themselves were interviewed. Here, too, the aim is to estimate the benefits and the monetary willingness-to-accept for pre-emptive rights, this time on the part of the affected farmland owners. However, it also becomes clear that there is a monetary willingness-to-accept this, i.e. that a compensation payment is expected from the entitled party for the granting of pre-emptive rights. As in the previous studies, the benefit as well as the willingness-to-accept strongly depends on the char¬acteristics of the pre-emptive right and the personal and farm situation of the respondents. Finally, another discrete choice experiment was conducted among orchardists and vintners in Baden-Württemberg. The subject of the study is the decision-making behaviour of the orchardists and vintners surveyed regarding the conclusion of state-subsidised crop insurance policies to protect against damage due to extreme weather events. The creation of the discrete choice experiment is based on a pilot project introduced in 2019 by the state of Baden-Württemberg to promote crop insurance against extreme weather-related damage in orcharding and viticulture. Here, too, the majority of respondents decide to take up subsidised crop insurance and show a willingness to pay for crop insurance. This decision is influenced by the characteristics of the crop insurance, but also by the previous risk management of the surveyed farms. Summing up all the analyses carried out, it can be said that farmers face up to the challenges currently arising, deal with the possible solutions and, within the framework of discrete choice experiments, decide by majority in favour of these solutions and thus against the status quo.
Akzeptanz, Status quo und Entwicklung der Digitalisierung entlang der genossenschaftlichen agro-food Wertschöpfungskette
(2022) Munz, Jana; Doluschitz, Reiner
Within the first subject area (I. Status quo and development of digitalization in German agriculture) in one publication presented in this dissertation, the model of Porter and Heppelmann (2014) was taken up and further developed to empirically capture the status quo of digitization in German agriculture. Using a cluster analysis, the farmers participating in the survey could be assigned to two specific development stages. 58.2 % of the respondents were assigned to the second development stage of "users of smart products". 41.8 % of the respondents could be classified as "users of smart, connected products", among whom the use of complex systems that connect individual mechanical and electrical components are particularly widespread. Thus, it could be determined that German farms have not yet reached the level of "smart farming" and also not the level of "product systems". The nature of the use of FMIS in terms of widespread use of web-based applications, automatic digital data entry and, above all, the use of universal data standards were identified within the study as the greatest obstacles on the way to achieving "smart farming". Digitzation is also presented as a prerequisite for future economic performance and survival for cooperatives, with rural cooperatives in particular facing increasing competitive pressure due to structural change processes, ongoing transformation processes through digitization and the emergence of new competitors. According to the current state of knowledge, the topic of digitization in rural cooperatives has not been examined yet and is now, for the first time, the focus of scientific studies within the second subject area of this dissertation (II. Acceptance, status quo and development of rural cooperatives in the context of digitization). Two publications first shed light on the determinants of acceptance factors for the use of digital technologies among rural cooperatives. The first study presented here is based on the identification and analysis of acceptance factors regarding the use of internet-based information systems (IS) along the cooperative value chain of the red meat industry from the perspective of farmers or members/customers of a livestock marketing cooperative. Three benefit-generating factors regarding the expected use of internet-based IS could be identified as valid acceptance factors: the support in documentation and an obligatory exchange of data towards administrative bodies (B2A); the inter-farm data exchange between farmer and livestock marketing company/slaughterhouse (B2B); the function of integrating external data into the IS. Another study focuses on the intermediary level of German agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives from the perspective of the managing directors, with the three acceptance factors relating to the expected use of digital technologies in the business areas of procurement and logistics, customer/member management, and marketing being identified as having a beneficial effect. Personnel and financial factors as well as strategic and operational factors were identified as the greatest challenge on the way to implementing digital technologies. Opportunities arising from membership of the cooperative network therefore need to be exploited in a targeted manner to address challenges and jointly mitigate risks. Overall, it was possible to demonstrate that there is an "attitudinal acceptance" of the introduction of digital technologies at the level of primary production and the intermediate level of agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives. In the course of the analyses, the determinant of the size of the cooperative or farm could be attributed as a positive influence on the acceptance of digital technologies. The final paper presented as part of this dissertation makes a contribution with regard to identifying the status quo of digital technology adoption in agricultural trade and commodity cooperatives and derives opportunities for a digital differentiation for these cooperatives. Based on a cluster analysis, the cooperatives could be assigned to the cluster of "Basic Adopters" (n=48) and "Advanced service-oriented Adopters" (n=18). Against the backdrop of ongoing cut-throat competition and the findings obtained in the present studies, it is recommended that agricultural trade cooperatives consider an individually tailored differentiation strategy and, to this end, build up concrete digital competencies with an increased service orientation in order to adapt their business model or business processes to current industry developments.
Voraussetzungen und Umsetzungsmöglichkeiten sowie ökonomische Auswirkungen von Kompensationsmaßnahmen gemäß BNatSchG in der Landwirtschaft in Ballungsräumen am Beispiel der Region Stuttgart
(2021) Sponagel, Christian; Bahrs, Enno
Land take due to urbanisation has a major local and global impact on the natural balance, that are to be compensated for in many countries around the world. In Germany, this kind of impacts are to be compensated for according to the Impact Mitigation Regulation pursuant to Article 13 of the German Nature Conservation Act. In addition to land take for an intervention, such as a building site, additional land is required for the implementation of offset measures. Especially in expanding urban areas, where land scarcity is a problem, offsetting can exacerbate land use conflicts. Agriculture, in particular, is one key stakeholder in the context of offsetting. On the one hand, agricultural land, especially intensively used arable land, offers considerable potential for nature conservation enhancement. On the other hand, agriculture is also characterised by its considerable spatial impact. There is also a need for improvement in the compensation process from the point of view of nature conservation, as there are often deficits in the maintenance and implementation of measures. Existing instruments such as eco-accounts or so-called production-integrated compensation, a form of cooperation between nature conservation and agriculture, have so far been poorly established. The present study, therefore, analyses offset activities with a focus on agriculture in urban areas, drawing more particularly on the example of the Stuttgart Region. Chapters 2 and 3 of the study focus on the analysis of individual farms. In addition to in-depth interviews with farms, Chapter 2 provides a spatial analysis of agricultural land take for offset purposes using the example of the neighbouring cities of Stuttgart and Filderstadt. The insights gained are applied in Chapter 3 to analyse the acceptance of offset measures using a discrete choice experiment (DCE). In Chapter 3 the DCE is conducted with farmers in and outside the Stuttgart Region. In Chapter 4, the offset potential is determined using the example of arable land in the Stuttgart Region with the help of a geodata-based land use model. Within Chapter 5 different offset scenarios at regional level are analysed. To this end, data on the estimated offset needs of the municipalities in the Stuttgart Region up to 2030 were furnished by the Verband Region Stuttgart. They are used for modelling, and the results of the DCE from Chapter 3 are incorporated. Chapter 6 addresses the regional bundling and networking of production-integrated compensation measures with the help of expert-based maps. Using geodata, a spatially differentiated assessment is carried out from an agricultural and nature conservation perspective. The aim here is to identify areas that offer the greatest possible potential for synergies between agriculture and nature conservation in conjunction with offset measures. The spatial analysis shows that agriculture is disproportionately affected by land loss in the context of the intervention regulation compared to other land uses. Furthermore, the results show that agriculture generally accepts voluntary offset measures although this very much depends on the type of measure and legal safeguard. The results also show a considerable potential for offset measures on agricultural land, although there are strong spatial disparities in terms of costs, especially between the centre of an urban area and the peripheral areas, as demonstrated by the example of the Stuttgart Region. Consequently, the spatially unrestricted implementation of compensation can lead to a polarisation between the core of the region with therefore just a few ecologically beneficial, landscape-enhancing offset measures and the peripheral areas with numerous ecologically beneficial, landscape-enhancing offset measures. Moreover, the developed expert-based maps show that synergies are possible between agriculture and nature conservation on a significant scale. Offset measures can thus contribute to ecological sustainability in agricultural landscapes and are a relevant business option for farms. There are major challenges when it comes to communication between agriculture and authorities or municipalities: ensuring understanding and transparency in terms of the market for offset measures, and assessing the nature conservation enhancement of production-integrated compensation measures. In addition, the various forms of legal safeguard in connection with the determination of the legally prescribed care and maintenance period must be more clearly specified and communicated in the future. Voluntary or eco-accounting measures, in particular, should be used more intensively, as they allow for forward planning.
Success factors of farm investments : the example of Swiss dairy farms
(2021) Kramer, Benedikt; Doluschitz, Reiner
This scientific analysis aims to identify success factors of farm investments, which are supported by interest free loans. The data basis consists of data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) from 2003 through 2014 from Switzerland, which is matched to data from the Meliorations- und Agrarkredit-Projekt-Informations-System (MAPIS), where all supported dairy barn investments in Switzerland are registered. In addition, a Gini coefficient on the level of municipality is added, calculated from agricultural census data (AGIS). One of the main variables analysed is calculated profit. Another important variable, analysed in this work, is herd size. As a first step, the development of calculated profit and herd size change after investment are analysed by two separate fixed-effects panel regression models. The results show, that calculated profit is significantly and positively influenced by the amount of agricultural land of the farm and significantly reduced for the first three years after investment. From the fourth year onwards, no coefficients are significant anymore, which might either be caused by a divergent development of individual farms or by the diminishing number of observations. Herd size change is positive and significantly influenced by the amount of agricultural land. Also the period of quota phasing out affected herd size change positively. Dairy herds probably grew in the year before investment already and kept growing till five years after investment. Both dependent variables indicate that farms undergo an adjustment phase after investment. For the analysis of investment probability, the data sample is extended by including observations of all dairy farms and combined dairy/arable crop farms in the valley and hill region. Observations after investment are excluded. A logit regression model of the pooled data reveals that among the financial variables, only equity and farm income have a small positive and significant effect on investment probability. Social characteristics show a larger effect. The investment probability increases with age, farm household size and the presence of a partner. In order to analyse influencing factors of successful investments, investments that enable the farm to achieve the same or higher calculated profit as before, are considered successful. The year before investment is used as the basis and a Cox Proportional-Hazard-model is used to investigate those influencing factors. The model reveals that for farm having a higher calculated profit before investment, it is more difficult to restore that level after investment. Off-farm income and expenses for purchase of additional animals affect recovery of calculated profit significantly negative. The largest significant negative impact comes with more family labour. The results suggest that family labour which is likely to be freed up by productivity gains, is not reallocated to off-farm income. Additional indicators for land competition on the level of municipality are used. Agricultural income per family working unit is analysed as financial measure. This is a precursor for calculated profit and reflects financial efficiency of the input of family labor. In addition, growth of the dairy herd is analyzed. A random effects model is used for both variables. For dairy herd growth, utilized agricultural area and milk quota abolishment have a positive effect. More subsidized projects within a municipality and a higher concentration of acreage have a negative effect. For agricultural income per family working unit, utilised agricultural area, number of subsidized projects within a municipality, valley region and equity have a positive effect while milk quota abolishment has a negative effect. Off-farm income, which has been used as off-farm income per full-time working unit, showed no statistically significant effect. Neighboring effects appear to be more important for dairy herd growth than for agricultural income. Based on the derived definitions, success factors are identified. An adjustment phase is confirmed, while the productivity of family labour seems to be the most important influencing factor for recovering calculated profits of the pre-investment situation. Structural influences seem most important for herd size growth. With regard to the negative effect of off-farm labour, off-farm labour might be seen as enabling farms with off-farm labour to accept a lower level of labour productivity. In general, the social characteristics of farms seem to have a larger impact on dairy farm investments than financial variables. For investment support, the results imply not only to put emphasis on financial characteristics. In addition, the adjustment phase must be considered with investment plans. With such long lasting investments like dairy barns, strategic decisions by the farmer combined with family characteristics might be more important than financial indicators.
The potential of rural cooperatives development in Albania : challenges and benefits
(2021) Sokoli, Olta; Doluschitz, Reiner
Promising but particularly challenging remains the agricultural sector in Albania even after almost three decades of transition and the collapse of communism regime. The country is located in a very strategic geographical area of Europe, tempting for centuries to its neighbors is struggling to find the way to promote the agriculture sector. On the other hand, the agriculture sector contributes to almost half of the employment in Albania and accounts for about one-fifth of the gross domestic product (ILO - International Labour Organisation, 2018). Roughly 60% is subsistence farming meaning that small and family farms with an average of 1.2 ha to 2 ha is the most common profile of the farmers (INSTAT, 2018). Combining this with the land fragmentation, for instance two or more rather small parcels per farm, geographically spread, generates a challenge for farmers. As a consequence of the land reform implemented in the early 1990s, in which state agricultural land was equally distributed to the rural population, which resulted in small and fragmented farms that hampered the growth and competitiveness of agriculture. Due to negative experience in the past, Albania, farmers tend to be hesitant to form or join organizations such as cooperatives, as in many other post communism regime countries. However, there are signs of change, as the first movements of cooperatives establishment have started, even though initiated by external factor such as international projects provided by GIZ, FAO and many other foreigner programs. The two major objectives of this research are: first to highlight the obstacles why farmers are hesitant to participate in cooperation even after three decades of regime change. Secondly, the benefits and the mechanisms to promote this movement, as well as the impact it might have in further development of agriculture in the country. Based on this observations and consecutive problematic this dissertation analyzes the potential of cooperative development in the following key issues: cooperatives evolution within the last decades, governmental institution supporting role in this movement, the factors that influence the willingness of farmers to or not to cooperate. The research has taken place in the main villages/areas of Lushnja and Fier district covering about 25% of the Albanian national milk/dairy cow per head (INSTAT, 2018). The research sample included 238 farmers involved in cow milk production who were selected randomly by the interviewers. The interviewed farmers were all personally involved in farm activities, including the production and sale of cow milk Furthermore, the findings show the importance of governmental institutions in the promotion and the support for the development of cooperatives. Their role is fundamental as they play the leading and managerial role of the policy implementation. Moreover, a particular importance has shown the indirect affect that local rules have on cooperation. From the findings, it emerges that the main and most noteworthy mechanism of how local rules affect willingness to cooperate is by constructing social capital. Without leaving apart the determinants of the local rules, trust, and leadership skills in cooperation taken individually and in relation to each other (Agrawal 2001, Ostrom 2009, Ostrom and Mc Ginhis 2014). Summarizing the above mentioned major findings and in conclusion, innovative initiatives is a process in itself that should be elaborated and supported broadly to deliver the importance it brings in the development of the farm or in the farmers organization such as cooperatives, without leaving aside the impact it might have in the community (Dossa and Kaeufer, 2014; Bocken et al., 2013; Weltzien, 2011). A challenging initiative does not make it not valuable and uncertain but should intrigue the community to incorporate new possibilities.
Behavioral economic impact on animal health surveillance system in Thailand (correct version of the dissertation)
(2021) Kewprasopsak, Tossapond
Zoonotic diseases are a continuously significant threat to global human and livestock health (causing millions of deaths yearly). Zoonotic diseases are not only a human health threat, but also a threat to animal health and welfare. Moreover, they have a high impact on national economies and food security due to productivity and production reduction. Expanding worldwide travel and global trade increases the importance of the threat of zoonotic diseases. The increase in global meat consumption contrasts with the escalating instability of the global meat market, which is affected by the increase of livestock densities, changes in production intensity, and slaughtering systems, causing animal disease outbreaks to spread widely. This study focuses on the animal disease surveillance system in Thailand as an important world meat exporter. In 2014, the Participatory One Health Disease Detection project, or PODD was set up by the veterinary inspection authorities to test animal epidemic control systems using smartphone applications in the Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand The main objectives of this study are (i) to evaluate the economic impact of the PODD system on farmers by impact assessment (n = 177) (ii) to demonstrate the impact of monetary and non-monetary incentives on the PODD reporters by the experimental approach (n = 17), (iii) and to present the effect of the socioeconomic factors and behavioral bias on farmers animal disease reporting behavior with the logit model (n = 467). Focusing on the first objective, the results of this study concluded that there is an impact on the farmers. The technology alone cannot improve animal health security in the short-term. In the second objective, the results concluded that, in the case of the PODD reporters, the decision of using monetary incentives to motivate most of the PODD reporters has a negative impact in the long-term. Losing reporter motivation and effort reflected to the low efficiency of the digital surveillance system of PODD and no impact on farmers. Concerning In the last objective, the results concluded that the optimistic bias of farmers has a very high impact on their decision making about reporting animal diseases on their farm. Just one infected farm in the case of dairy milk farmers can spread the foot-and-mouth disease to other farms. The new digital animal health surveillance system alone is not enough to reduce the impact of animal diseases of farmers. Suitable motivation for the reports and awareness of farmers optimistic bias in animal disease reporting cannot be neglected in digital animal disease surveillance system improvement. Overall, it can be concluded that the digital animal disease surveillance system is a powerful instrument for reducing the impact of animal diseases and increasing food safety and security. However, application of this advanced technology still needs time to demonstrate the impact and to be broadly adopted by users. In terms of motivation, the monetary incentive can increase the effort of report in the short run but it comes at a high cost and has a negative impact in the long-term. While the social incentive costs less and is more effective in the long-term. Where farmers animal disease reporting behavior is concerned, the optimistic bias is the highest influential factor on the farmers’ reporting decisions, in an inverse correlation.
Behavioral economic impact on animal health surveillance system in Thailand
(2021) Kewprasopsak, Tossapond; Reiner, Doluschitz
Zoonotic diseases are a continuously significant threat to global human and livestock health (causing millions of deaths yearly). Zoonotic diseases are not only a human health threat, but also a threat to animal health and welfare. Moreover, they have a high impact on national economies and food security due to productivity and production reduction. Expanding worldwide travel and global trade increases the importance of the threat of zoonotic diseases. The increase in global meat consumption contrasts with the escalating instability of the global meat market, which is affected by the increase of livestock densities, changes in production intensity, and slaughtering systems, causing animal disease outbreaks to spread widely. This study focuses on the animal disease surveillance system in Thailand as an important world meat exporter. In 2014, the Participatory One Health Disease Detection project, or PODD was set up by the veterinary inspection authorities to test animal epidemic control systems using smartphone applications in the Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand The main objectives of this study are (i) to evaluate the economic impact of the PODD system on farmers by impact assessment (n = 177) (ii) to demonstrate the impact of monetary and non-monetary incentives on the PODD reporters by the experimental approach (n = 17), (iii) and to present the effect of the socioeconomic factors and behavioral bias on farmers animal disease reporting behavior with the logit model (n = 467). Focusing on the first objective, the results of this study concluded that there is an impact on the farmers. The technology alone cannot improve animal health security in the short-term. In the second objective, the results concluded that, in the case of the PODD reporters, the decision of using monetary incentives to motivate most of the PODD reporters has a negative impact in the long-term. Losing reporter motivation and effort reflected to the low efficiency of the digital surveillance system of PODD and no impact on farmers. Concerning In the last objective, the results concluded that the optimistic bias of farmers has a very high impact on their decision making about reporting animal diseases on their farm. Just one infected farm in the case of dairy milk farmers can spread the foot-and-mouth disease to other farms. The new digital animal health surveillance system alone is not enough to reduce the impact of animal diseases of farmers. Suitable motivation for the reports and awareness of farmers optimistic bias in animal disease reporting cannot be neglected in digital animal disease surveillance system improvement. Overall, it can be concluded that the digital animal disease surveillance system is a powerful instrument for reducing the impact of animal diseases and increasing food safety and security. However, application of this advanced technology still needs time to demonstrate the impact and to be broadly adopted by users. In terms of motivation, the monetary incentive can increase the effort of report in the short run but it comes at a high cost and has a negative impact in the long-term. While the social incentive costs less and is more effective in the long-term. Where farmers’ animal disease reporting behavior is concerned, the optimistic bias is the highest influential factor on the farmers reporting decisions, in an inverse correlation.
Operationalisierung von Werten in Genossenschaften
(2020) Breuning, Senta; Doluschitz, Reiner
Values have gained in relevance due to their importance to individuals as well as to companies, as they are used, among other things, for orientation and identity formation. This is true for society as a whole, but especially for the structure of cooperatives. Against this background, the present cumulative dissertation will first of all establish an intersection of social (individual values) and cooperative (company values) values. For this purpose, numerous representative social value studies were analysed and a comprehensive national and international analysis of the cooperative scientific literature was collected. The aim of the intersection was to analyse a common denominator of individual and company values in order to be able to conduct an empirical survey based on fundamental values of society and cooperatives. The result of the two analyses was an intersection of 16 values, which serve as a basis for the quantitative empirical survey along a structured questionnaire. In the further course of the present dissertation it was clarified what German society knows about cooperatives and their principles and values. As differentiating factors, individual determinants such as gender, generation, federal states and cooperative branches have been analysed comparatively. In principle, a clear majority of German society has heard the term cooperatives before. However, the cooperative values and principles are much less known than the term cooperative itseld. The lack of knowledge about the term "cooperative" as well as about the cooperative values and principles is mainly found among women and the younger generations Y and Z. Contrary to the expectations, no differences are discernible with regard to the degree of familiarity with the term cooperative and its values and principles in an East-West comparison of the federal states. However, the level of awareness of cooperatives and their values and principles depends on the cooperative sector. Therefore, it can be concluded that the test persons who are familiar with the field of cooperative banks have heard the term cooperative more often and are more familiar with the cooperative principles and values than the test persons who are more acquainted with commercial or rural cooperatives. Furthermore, it should be noted that members of cooperatives are better informed about the term cooperative and its values and principles than the general German population. While the social values represent the individual values of German society and are classified as "important" to "very important", the cooperative values are the company values which are perceived by society as "less important". When listing the individual and company values, it becomes clear that the sequences are not identical and that the mean values differ considerably. Freedom is the most important individual value, whereas freedom comes last in the company values. Meanwhile, solidarity is the most important company value, which is nevertheless ranked 12th in the list of individual values. Other interesting differences, but also similarities, such as in the value of security, can be found in the rankings of the individual and company values. In general, it is worth noting that women and the oldest age cohorts, i.e. the traditionalists, rate both individual and company values more important than men and the younger generations Y and Z. Against this background, cooperatives are faced with the decision of how they want to deal with the result, especially in the context of their strategic management. In this context, either the adaptation or the differentiation strategy is suitable with regard to the application of values. The adaptation strategy consciously communicates the values that the selected target group considers as important. The differentiation strategy explicitly communicates values that can be historically and branchspecifically associated with the individual cooperative. In addition to the challenge of value pluralism, which can be found in society as well as in cooperatives and their value communication, the heterogeneity of the membership structure and their value perception of corporate values poses an additional challenge for cooperatives. In order to operationalise values in the corporate culture of cooperatives, the membership structure should therefore be analysed on a case-by-case basis and the strategic orientation of the management should be chosen accordingly. In conclusion, it is important to note that values are considered abstract. However, when continuously applied in strategic management, as well as in precise and goaloriented communication, they represent an essential contribution to the corporate mission and vision. Thus, they can contribute a considerable share to the increase of positive perception and company success.
Ökonomische Bewertung regionaler Wettbewerbspotentiale verschiedener landwirtschaftlicher Biomassen im Rahmen der Bioökonomie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Baden-Württembergs
(2020) Petig, Eckart; Bahrs, Enno
The finite nature of fossil resources and climate change pose major challenges to the global society and require a comprehensive transformation of the current economic system. One important aspect of this transformation, also known as bioeconomy, is the transition from a fossil-based to a bio-based supply of raw materials. In this context, agricultural production represents an important supplier of raw materials, which in Germany is already characterized by a strong competition for the scarce land. The scarce land is a major challenge of the expansion of the use of agricultural biomass for the bioeconomy. Accordingly, the derivation of the potential of agricultural biomass for bioeconomy requires consideration of the tradeoffs between various utilization paths. In this context, economic models can be valuable methods, which on one hand are able to depict the trade-offs of different value chains and can, on the other hand, incorporate the uncertainty by developing suitable scenarios. The aim of this thesis is the evaluation of the potential of different agricultural biomasses for the bioeconomy and to analyze the associated effects on agricultural production structures in Baden-Wuerttemberg. In chapter 2 the potential of grassland as a biogas substrate is evaluated, which might be important for the bioeconomy in the future. Due to the more complex harvesting process and partly unfavorable production conditions, grassland has higher production costs compared to arable biogas substrates. The consideration of iLUC Factors with high prices for GHG emissions could improve the competitiveness of grassland to such an extent that it is competitive with the production of biogas substrates on arable land. However, silage maize is often the more favorable biogas substrate in many respects, as chapter 3 shows by means of a site modeling for biogas plants in Baden-Wuerttemberg. In chapter 4 and 5 the potential of straw for energetic and material use is analyzed. These investigations are based on the combination of EFEM with the techno-economic location optimization model BIOLOCATE. The results clearly show the interaction between the economies of scale and the rising raw material supply costs. On the one hand, the average investment costs decrease with increasing plant size, but on the other hand the raw material costs increase, because the transport distances increase and an increasing demand for biomass results also in higher market prices. Additionally, the results show that straw can make a fundamental contribution to the bioeconomy by providing regional bioenergy and as feedstock for material value chains. However, even the use of by-products can have effects on cultivation structures and thus, reduce the production of agricultural biogas substrates, among other things. In Chapter 6 the effects of macroeconomic expansion paths of the bioeconomy on agricultural production structures in Baden-Wuerttemberg are investigated. For this purpose, the results of an iterative model coupling between the agricultural sector model ESIM and the energy sector model TIMES-PanEU of four bioeconomic scenarios are scaled down from national level to regional and farm level using EFEM. The results show different impacts on farm types and thus illustrate the advantages of a differentiated analysis of the expansion of the bioeconomy. Therefore, farms with mainly extensive production methods such as suckler cow husbandry do not profit from the expansion of the bioeconomy due to unfavorable production conditions, while especially large arable farms in fertile regions would benefit disproportional more than the average. Basically, the results reveal limits to the mobilization of additional biomass potential. The reason for this is the already high cultivation intensity of agricultural production in Germany, in which the expansion of one production restricts production of another due to competition for the limited agricultural land. For grassland, the results show that the decline in grassland-based cattle farming and unfavorable economic conditions can lead to a significant increase of unused grassland. Grassland thus presents itself as a promising resource for biomass production for the bioeconomy, as it can provide important ecosystem services (e.g. biodiversity) in addition to the provision of raw materials. However, a political framework has to be established that promotes ecological services accordingly. Finally, in chapter 7 additional research needs are identified, which include further development of the methodological approach. These comprise an extension of the analysis by macroeconomic models to integrate interactions with the material use in a more detailed way. Furthermore, an integration of ecological parameters is necessary for a holistic analysis in the context of bioeconomy.
Kooperative Lösungsansätze zur Begegnung der Herausforderungen der Daseinsvorsorge im ländlichen Raum
(2019) Adams, Isabel; Doluschitz, Reiner
In the context of social, (infra-)structural, agricultural and demographic change, new challenges are emerging for rural areas. Demographic change especially impacts on smaller communities without an efficient infrastructure (IREUS 2011, p. 64 f.). One central challenge that affects all areas of life is the nationwide provision of public services. Based on the challenges of providing public services on a nationwide basis, an approach already practised in some locations was analysed and further developed. Observations, infomation and statistical records from the past decade indicate that the wide-ranging tasks involved in providing public services are partially performed by cooperatives (cf. BLOME-DREES et al. 2015; DOLUSCHITZ et al. 2013a; GOESCHEL 2012, p. 51; KLEMISCH and BODDEN-BERG 2012, p. 570; Kluth 2017; MARTENS 2012, p. 145; MÜNKNER 2012, p. 332; STAPPEL 2016, p. 66) with the aim of addressing specific local problems (HAUNSTEIN and THÜRLING 2017, p. 2). Due to the lack of a basis of specifically required secondary data, a comprehensive data set was collected throughout Germany that enables analysis of the specific details and background to the emergence of newly-founded public service cooperatives. The results obtained confirm the background to these foundations as described in the literature, such as the desire for an appropriate infrastructure, regional deficits (BLOME-DREES et al. 2015, p. 134), threats to the infrastructure, social challenges (cf. WIEG 2016, p. 78) and specific local and regional problems (HAUNSTEIN and THÜRLING, 2017, p. 2). However, an analysis of the underlying the establishment of cooperatives also provides fresh, supplementary findings. On the one hand, further goals reflect a charitable purpose such as the creation of social points of contact, while on the other hand there are efforts to organise further training programmes, for example, based on the wishes/initiative of like-minded individuals. About two thirds of the responding public service cooperatives, especially in rural areas, are creating a new scheme for both members and non-members. Approximately one third of the public service cooperatives analysed aim to maintain or reactivate existing facilities and services that risk being discontinued or where discontinuation has already occurred as a result of various challenges. A second aspect of this dissertation relating to public services is the digitisation of the agricultural and food sectors. All in all, a heterogeneous pattern emerges with regard to digitisation along the value chain. As a result, the companies analysed are divided into pioneers, newcomers and followers. User structures were analysed by means of a survey among practising farmers that focused on the use of e-commerce structures when purchasing agricultural resources. These structures proved to be independent of age, farm size, location and farm orientation. On the basis of the surveys, time benefits were identified as the main source of motivation behind the procurement of resources through e-commerce channels, which contradicts the cost benefits described in the literature (cf. CLASEN 2005, p. 54 f.).
Theoretical analysis and preference modelling for the valuation of ecosystem services from native pollinators in selected Thai rural communities
(2018) Narjes, Manuel; Lippert, Christian
Until now, the existing microeconomic models concerned with pollination markets have not accommodated the global diversity of beekeeper-farmer interactions. The most prominent of such theoretical models is dedicated to describing the determinants of colony stocking densities and of equilibrium wages that farmers have paid to commercial beekeepers for decades in the highly bee-pollination reliant almond monocultures of California. This cumulative dissertation generalizes this basic model by taking into account the marginal productivity of a given agro-ecosystem’s wild bees and the opportunity costs that farmers incur when assigning labor time to beekeeping. In that regard, we assessed the economic potential of on-farm beekeeping, which can involve several bee species, by juxtaposing this activity’s net benefits against those from hiring commercial pollination services. In addition to serving as a classification tool for a plurality of farmer-beekeeper-nature interactions and related optimization problems, the resulting analytical framework helps identifying the institutional settings that are most likely to lead to a specific bioeconomic equilibrium supply of pollination. What is more, it illustrates the interplay of the pertinent economic and agro-ecological factors, thus assisting the postulation of empirically testable hypotheses. We also conducted two separate discrete choice experiments (DCEs) with orchardists from the Thai provinces of Chiang Mai (N = 198 respondents) and Chanthaburi (N = 127), in order to elicit their preferences for changes in the population of local wild bees that would hypothetically result from a conservation policy consisting (along with a per-household implementation fee) of at least one of the following three measures: (i) offering farmers bee-friendly alternatives to conventional agro-chemicals, (ii) enabling the protection and/or rehabilitation of natural bee habitats near cropland, and (iii) fostering the husbandry of native bee species by transferring technical knowledge on the practice of on-farm beekeeping. In this context, we fitted random parameter logit models on the Chiang Mai dataset. They yielded a significant willingness to pay (WTP) for the presented conservation measures and suggested that the disutility the respondents perceived for a 50% decline in the local population of native bees was greater than the utility they would derive from experiencing a bee population increase of the same magnitude. Moreover, comparing our aggregated WTP estimates to the expected production losses, showed that orchard farmers underestimated the true use value of pollination. On the other hand, the average WTP for all conservation measures combined by far exceeded the costs that, according to our calculations, each household would incur for such a project to be implemented. Our models also indicated a significant preference heterogeneity in the sampled population, which we could partly explain with idiosyncratic variables such as the respondents’ attitudes towards native bees and beekeeping. Finally, we examined further sources of randomness in the observed choice behavior, by modelling the unknown choice decision-relevant influences that could not be captured during the DCEs. To that end, we fitted generalized mixed logit (GMXL) models on the pooled datasets, which allowed comparing, on a common utility scale, the part-worth (value) estimates from Chiang Mai and Chanthaburi, where different experimental designs were applied. Our results reveal that farmers in Chanthaburi, who reported having experienced crop declines that they attributed to insufficient pollination, introduced less subjective factors into their choices than their Chiang Mai counterparts, who may have been less familiar with the importance of conserving bees. Moreover, the GMXL results also suggest that Chanthaburi farmers placed a significantly higher value on the above-mentioned measures (i) and (ii), while caring comparatively less about a 50% decline in local wild bee colonies. One can thus hypothesize that an actual local pollinator decline may have made Chanthaburi farmers more aware of the importance of conserving native bees, while paradoxically making them more independent from the provision of wild pollination services, as they started managing crop pollination with stingless bees.

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